https://bou.de/u/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Yang+ZilingChina Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-04T09:15:36ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.35.14https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=11951520201228 trans2020-12-28T05:05:17Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* Yi Zichu 义子楚 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
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A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
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Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br />
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通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。<br />
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据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
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''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
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我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
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''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
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''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
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The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
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A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
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“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
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”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
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Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.<br />
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'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''<br />
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对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
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Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
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我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
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分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
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The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
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2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
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3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
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1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。<br />
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2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br />
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3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
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1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
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Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
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2、社会政治 在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。 在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。<br />
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3，个人 在香港 关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。<br />
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在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
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政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
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政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
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非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.<br />
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1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
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上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
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Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
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Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
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Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
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Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
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Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
<br />
Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
<br />
在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。 现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
<br />
“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。<br />
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。<br />
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
<br />
地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。<br />
<br />
对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
<br />
除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.<br />
<br />
这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
<br />
'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br />
<br />
在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br />
<br />
更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
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20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br />
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br />
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''<br />
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相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
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Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
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文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。<br />
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感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
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Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
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- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
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为什么论文像小说一样丰富？<br />
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让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：<br />
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-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现 ）。 对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响， 并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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为什么散文像小说一样丰富？<br />
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让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：<br />
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这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。 对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。 散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。 它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
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- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
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-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
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- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
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-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
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- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
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“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
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3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
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3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置<br />
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
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20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
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Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
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关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
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然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
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I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
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We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
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'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
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How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
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下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
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5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
<br />
“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
<br />
边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
<br />
目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
<br />
前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
<br />
但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).<br />
<br />
梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。<br />
<br />
6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。<br />
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
<br />
This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
<br />
以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br />
<br />
例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
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I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
<br />
除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
<br />
考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
<br />
一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
<br />
<br />
我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。 原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。 周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。 在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。 一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。 两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
<br />
''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
<br />
In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
<br />
In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
<br />
“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
<br />
为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
<br />
"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
<br />
见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br />
<br />
参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
<br />
因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.<br />
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.<br />
<br />
因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br />
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
<br />
However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.<br />
<br />
'''2. 兼容性<br />
'''<br />
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？<br />
<br />
首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
<br />
'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
<br />
There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
<br />
然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
<br />
'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
<br />
'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
<br />
According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
<br />
小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。<br />
<br />
The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
<br />
'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
<br />
Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
<br />
此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。<br />
<br />
“5. 成熟和异化”<br />
<br />
抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙运动哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759年)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙运动哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).<br />
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德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
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'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
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Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
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According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
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The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
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In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
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Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
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"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”<br />
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情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
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While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.<br />
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《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。 在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。<br />
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玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
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在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
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A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
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封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
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另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
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2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
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Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
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8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
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亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
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亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
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In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
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尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
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在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
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在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
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它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
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One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
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9. “非二进制小说”<br />
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可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“非二元”小说<br />
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一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.<br />
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随着梦中主人公的双性取向，小说呈现出非二元性。<br />
卡尔·海因茨·波尔认为，二进制只是表面现象，最终起决定性作用的是“心经”。今天，这部小说被列为非二元文学的一个流派（参见https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary)，其中的反差被解构主义地化解了。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
<br />
Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
<br />
10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
<br />
'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
<br />
Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
<br />
Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
'''<br />
<br />
A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.<br />
<br />
<br />
机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信<br />
<br />
口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段<br />
<br />
湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）最终到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:05, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
<br />
Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
<br />
这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
<br />
研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
<br />
The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
<br />
这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
<br />
The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
<br />
但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
<br />
机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
<br />
'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
<br />
1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
<br />
2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
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3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
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4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
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5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
<br />
"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
<br />
1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
<br />
2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
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3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
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4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
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8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
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9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
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<br />
7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br />
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8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br />
<br />
9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
<br />
1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
<br />
2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
<br />
3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
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4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
<br />
'''3种分析类型'''<br />
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1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）<br />
<br />
2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）<br />
<br />
3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）<br />
<br />
4..流动概况/模式<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
<br />
8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
<br />
9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
<br />
7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。<br />
<br />
8，消费者行为：例如 在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）<br />
<br />
9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
<br />
1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
<br />
2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
<br />
3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
<br />
4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
<br />
5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
<br />
4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
<br />
1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
<br />
2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
<br />
3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
<br />
4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
<br />
5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
<br />
7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
<br />
8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
<br />
9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
<br />
6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
<br />
7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
<br />
8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
<br />
9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
<br />
'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
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1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
<br />
2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
<br />
到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
<br />
'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
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1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
<br />
2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
<br />
4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
<br />
5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
<br />
6.Identity theft<br />
<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
<br />
4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
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6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
<br />
3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
<br />
4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
<br />
5.Polarization of Society<br />
<br />
6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
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7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
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3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
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4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会的两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
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7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
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3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
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4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
<br />
9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
<br />
1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?<br />
<br />
但是，具有外骨骼的动物会减少其内部肌肉并发展出柔软的内部，从而使它们完全没有外骨骼就无法生存。 骨骼外伦理，例如，对于被认为是积极的行为给予奖励积分，而对于被认为是消极的行为给予减分，这剥夺了人类在社会环境中的自然学习和发展过程的责任和内在的道德判断力 。 如果遇到一个具有骨骼外伦理和内心道德的人，你会更信任谁？--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
'''9展望'''<br />
<br />
我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''9展望'''<br />
<br />
我们不得不承认，这种发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都会引发恐慌。重要的是，我们要意识到这些发展，并调整错误的发展方向。我们需要建立正确的框架和激励机制，使新技术能够继续为人类服务。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 04:04, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=11951420201228 trans2020-12-28T05:01:14Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* Yang Ziling 杨子泠 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br />
<br />
通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。<br />
<br />
据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
<br />
''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
<br />
我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
<br />
''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
<br />
''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
<br />
The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
<br />
A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
<br />
“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
<br />
”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
<br />
Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.<br />
<br />
'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''<br />
<br />
对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
<br />
我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
<br />
分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
<br />
2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
<br />
3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。<br />
<br />
2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br />
<br />
3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
<br />
1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
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Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
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2、社会政治 在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。 在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。<br />
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3，个人 在香港 关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。<br />
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在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
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政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
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政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
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非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.<br />
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1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
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上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
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Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
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Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
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Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
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Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
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Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
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Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
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Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
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''Martin Woesler''<br />
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In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
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《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
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在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
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本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
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The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
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'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
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二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
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20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
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20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。 现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
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Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
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“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。<br />
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。<br />
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
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地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。<br />
<br />
对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
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在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
<br />
除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.<br />
<br />
这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
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This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
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Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
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'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br />
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在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br />
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更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br />
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br />
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''<br />
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相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
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文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。<br />
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感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
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Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
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- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
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为什么论文像小说一样丰富？<br />
<br />
让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：<br />
<br />
-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现 ）。 对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响， 并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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为什么散文像小说一样丰富？<br />
<br />
让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：<br />
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这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。 对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。 散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。 它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
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- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
<br />
- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
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“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
<br />
3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
<br />
3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置<br />
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
<br />
关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
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I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
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We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
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'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
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How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
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下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
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5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
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From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
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In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
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“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
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In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
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During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
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荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
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历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
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历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
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Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
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考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
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Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
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目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
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前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
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Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).<br />
<br />
梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。<br />
<br />
6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。<br />
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
<br />
This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
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然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
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以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br />
<br />
例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
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王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
<br />
I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
<br />
除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
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Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
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20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
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考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
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一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
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I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
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我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。 原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。 周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。 在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。 一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。 两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
<br />
''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
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In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
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In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
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“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
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为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
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"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
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Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
<br />
见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br />
<br />
参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
<br />
因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.<br />
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.<br />
<br />
因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br />
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
<br />
However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.<br />
<br />
'''2. 兼容性<br />
'''<br />
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？<br />
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首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
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'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
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There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
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然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
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'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
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《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
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'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
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According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
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小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。<br />
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The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
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《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
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虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
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'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
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Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
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此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。<br />
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“5. 成熟和异化”<br />
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抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
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然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
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曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙运动哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759年)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙运动哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).<br />
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德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
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'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
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Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
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According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
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The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
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In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
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Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
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"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”<br />
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情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
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While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.<br />
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《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。 在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。<br />
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玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
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在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
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A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
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封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
<br />
另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
<br />
Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
<br />
在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
<br />
在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
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它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
<br />
One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
<br />
9. “非二进制小说”<br />
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可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
“非二元”小说<br />
<br />
一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.<br />
<br />
随着梦中主人公的双性取向，小说呈现出非二元性。<br />
卡尔·海因茨·波尔认为，二进制只是表面现象，最终起决定性作用的是“心经”。今天，这部小说被列为非二元文学的一个流派（参见https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary)，其中的反差被解构主义地化解了。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
<br />
Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
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10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
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'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
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Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
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Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
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Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
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Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
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Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
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Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
'''<br />
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A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.<br />
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机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信<br />
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口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段<br />
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湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒<br />
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摘要<br />
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卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
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Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
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本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
<br />
这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
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虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
<br />
研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
<br />
The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
<br />
这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
<br />
The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
<br />
但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
<br />
机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
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'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
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1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
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2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
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3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
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4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
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5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
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6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
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"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
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1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
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2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
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3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
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4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
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5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
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6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
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8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
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9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
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7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br />
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8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br />
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9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
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1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
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2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
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3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
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4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
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'''3种分析类型'''<br />
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1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）<br />
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2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）<br />
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3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）<br />
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4..流动概况/模式<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
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5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
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6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
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6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
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8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
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9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
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7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。<br />
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8，消费者行为：例如 在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）<br />
<br />
9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
<br />
1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
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2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
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3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
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4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
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5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
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4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
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1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
<br />
2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
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3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
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4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
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5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
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7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
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8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
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9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
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6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
<br />
7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
<br />
8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
<br />
9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
<br />
'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
<br />
2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
<br />
到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
<br />
'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
<br />
1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
<br />
2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
<br />
4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
<br />
5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
<br />
6.Identity theft<br />
<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
<br />
4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
<br />
3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
<br />
4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
<br />
5.Polarization of Society<br />
<br />
6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
<br />
7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会的两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
<br />
9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
<br />
1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?<br />
<br />
但是，具有外骨骼的动物会减少其内部肌肉并发展出柔软的内部，从而使它们完全没有外骨骼就无法生存。 骨骼外伦理，例如，对于被认为是积极的行为给予奖励积分，而对于被认为是消极的行为给予减分，这剥夺了人类在社会环境中的自然学习和发展过程的责任和内在的道德判断力 。 如果遇到一个具有骨骼外伦理和内心道德的人，你会更信任谁？--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
'''9展望'''<br />
<br />
我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''9展望'''<br />
<br />
我们不得不承认，这种发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都会引发恐慌。重要的是，我们要意识到这些发展，并调整错误的发展方向。我们需要建立正确的框架和激励机制，使新技术能够继续为人类服务。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 04:04, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_cult&diff=11951120201221 cult2020-12-28T04:56:09Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* Yi Zichu 义子楚 */</p>
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<div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br />
1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。 结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。 这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。<br />
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他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。 结果，大月氏逃走了，却仍然对匈奴怀恨在心。 这时，汉朝变得越来越强大，汉武帝决定攻打匈奴。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。 仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。<br />
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3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West. <br />
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16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。 他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。 同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br />
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16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。 他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面把天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作引入中国。 同时，他们把中国的儒家和道家思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.<br />
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第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便 建立现代国防。 这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。<br />
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第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，奕䜣（恭亲王）和国内官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，因而他们主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，旨在建立一支现代化的国防军队。 这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了一场向西方列强学习的运动。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
1.传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。<br />
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The traditional Silk Road starts in Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reaches the Mediterranean Sea via the Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq and Syria, ending in Rome, a total length of 6,440 kilometres.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing dynasties, making it the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.此时的西学传入，主要以传教士和一些中国人对西方科学著作的翻译为主。<br />
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The introduction of Western learning at this time was dominated by the translation of Western scientific works by missionaries and some Chinese.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.当时时期主要特点就是整体化和近代化。近代化就是资本主义代替封建专制，这是历史的必然。这也是洋务运动试图走近代化的道理，在世界整体化的趋势下，中国比较被动的卷入。<br />
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The main characteristic of the period was holism and modernisation. Modernisation is the replacement of feudal autocracy by capitalism, which is a historical necessity. This was also the rationale behind the attempts of the Westernization Movement to modernise, with China being more passively involved in the trend towards the globalisation of the world as a whole.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 04:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
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1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。<br />
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The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。<br />
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During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。<br />
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Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。<br />
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The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
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1.丝绸之路不仅是古代亚欧互通有无的商贸大道，还是促进亚欧各国和中国的友好往来，沟通东西方文化的友谊之路。<br />
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The Silk Road is a commercial avenue for exchanges between Asia and Europe in ancient times as well as a road of frienndship that promotes friendly exchanges between Asian and European countries and China.<br />
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The Silk Road is not only a commercial avenue for exchanges of needed goods between ancient Asia and Europe, but also a road of friendship that promotes friendly communications, and cultural exchanges between China and European countries.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.在群星璀璨的中华英杰中，郑和不但以先于西方人航海，胜于西方人的航海技术受到国际社会的关注，而且以其所代表的一种文化精神得到人们的关注。<br />
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Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He not only got the attention for his sailing sills which precended and surpassed Westerns, but also attracted people's attention with the cultural spirit he represented.<br />
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Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He received international concerns not only because of his navigation skills which surpassed the Westerners, but also for a cultural spirit he represented.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐意味着以西方之学术，灌输于中国，使中国日趋于文明富强之境。<br />
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The eastwars spread of western learning means instilling in China with Weastern academics so as to make China more civilized and prosperous.<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning means to instill western academics into China so as to make it more civilized and prosperous.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.处于传统国家和农业文明体系下的中国在面对经过资产阶级革命后的现代国家和工业文明的英国的挑战时显得不堪一击。<br />
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Under the traditional agricultural civilization system, China was such vulnerable to the challenges from England, which was already a modern and highly industrilized country after the bourgeois revolution. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Under the traditional agricultural system, China was too vulnerable to face challenges from the British, which was already a modern and highly industrialized country after the bourgeois revolution.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br />
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1.In 119 BC, Zhang Qian set off on his second journey to the Western Regions.<br />
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公元前119年，张谦出发了他的第二次西域之旅--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.While Zheng's fleet showed off Chinese might and naval prowess, orthodox Chinese histories depict him as never engaging in gunboat diplomacy, rather developing friendships with foreign leaders. <br />
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郑的舰队展示了中国的威力和海军实力，而正统的中国历史则将他描绘为从未从事炮舰外交，而是与外国领导人发展友谊。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.The eastward transmission of Western learning refers to the transmission of Western cultures in China in the mid-1800s.<br />
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西方学习向东传播是指1800年代中期西方文化在中国的传播--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.China has always been a planned economy where the government played a big role in deciding how the country should be controlled. <br />
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中国一直是计划经济国家，政府在决定如何控制国家方面发挥着重要作用。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
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1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。<br />
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A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A vast batch of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road enable this long trip to be one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.作为一个具有野心的拥有回族血统的穆斯林太监、一个典型的游离于儒家学者精英体制之外的人，郑和在1405到1433年间七下西洋，其中六次都在永乐帝的支持下进行。<br />
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An ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent, a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433 with six of them under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As an ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent and a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433, with six expeditions under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:26, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.从19世纪下半叶到20世纪初,伴随着“西学东渐”的进程,西方妇女生活现状、人权思想及女权理论渐次传入中国,引起了中国思想界的关注。<br />
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From the second half of 19th century to the beginning of 20th century, with the progress of the eastward spread of western learning, western women's living situations, thoughts of human rights and feminist theories were gradually introduced into China and attracted the attention of the Chinese ideological circle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。<br />
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Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to western models.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the guidance of the Han scholars with modern thinking, people learned the science and language of the west opened special schools in some big cities. Armouries, factories and docks were also built with reference to Western models.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
1.张骞被誉为伟大的外交家、探险家，是“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”、“丝绸之路的开拓者”、“东方的哥伦布”。<br />
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Zhang Qian, rated as a great diplomat and explorer, is "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world "," the pioneer of the Silk Road" and "Columbus of the East ". --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。<br />
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Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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The Eastward World Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of spreading western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Eastward World Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times when western academic thoughts spread to China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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Westernization Movement, also known as self-strengthening movement. It is a self-help movement that introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s by Westernization School. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
1、张骞出使西域这一历史事件具有特殊的历史意义。张骞对开辟从中国通往西域的丝绸之路有卓越贡献，至今举世称道。<br />
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Zhang Qian’s westward travel is of historic and special significance in Chinese history. Zhang Qian made excellent contributions to the opening of the Silk Road from China to “The Western Regions”, which is even praised by today’s world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、陆路是中西往来的最古老的通道，其主要工具是马和骆驼。但牲畜负载有限，费用巨大。此外沿途自然条件艰险，安全没有保障。所以当航海技术发展起来以后，海路在中西交通中所起的作用越来越重要。<br />
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Land route is the oldest access between China and“The Western Regions” and the major transportation tools were horses and camels. However, the load of those livestock was limited and cost much. Besides, the natural environment along the land route was hard and dangerous, making travelers lost security assurance.Therefore, with the development of seamanship, sea route began to play an increasingly important role in the communications between China and “The Western Regions”. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、明万历年间，随着耶稣会传教士的到来，对中国的学术思想有所触动。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。当时中国一些士大夫及皇帝接受了科学技术上的知识，但是在思想上基本没有受到影响。<br />
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During Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, as the coming of Jesuit missionaries in China, Chinese academic thought was slightly effected by western thought. At the same time of the spreading of Christian doctrines by those missionaries, a large amount of science and technology was introduced into China. Back then, Chinese emperor and some officials accepted knowledge of western science and technology,but their thought didn’t be influenced by the knowledge.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、洋务运动进行30多年虽然没有使中国富强起来，但洋务运动引进了西方先进的科学技术，使中国出现了第一批近代企业，在客观上为中国民族资本主义的产生和发展起到了促进作用。<br />
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The westernization movement which lasted for over 30 years did not make China become richer or stronger, but it introduced the advanced western science and technology which stimulated the emergence of the first modern enterprises, objectively promoting the emergence and development of Chinese national capitalism. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Grosheva, Anna==<br />
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1. To Zhang's surprise, satisfied with their life, the Da Yuezhi people refused to make an alliance against the Huns. <br />
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令张某惊讶的是，大月之人对自己的生活感到满意，拒绝与匈奴结盟。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. He is thought to have become interested in Buddhist teachings later in life and died in India. <br />
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人们认为他晚年对佛教教义感兴趣，并在印度去世。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. This study analyzes four stages of the development of modern sports in Shanghai: germination, growth, thriving, and depression. <br />
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这项研究分析了上海现代体育发展的四个阶段：发芽，成长，繁荣和沮丧。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones.<br />
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到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在完成其他主要新地区的整合。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
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1.丝绸之路是我国古代一条连接中国和欧亚大陆的交通线路，由于这条商路以丝绸贸易为主，故称为“丝绸之路”。<br />
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The Silk Road is a traffic route in the ancienttimes connecting China and Eurasia. This trade route focuses on the trade of silk, hencethe name "theSilk Road".<br />
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2.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代路上商业贸易路线。狭义上讲指陆上丝绸之路。广义上讲分为陆上丝绸之路和海上丝绸之路。“陆上丝绸之路”形成于于公元前2世纪与公元1世纪间，直至16世纪仍保留使用，以西汉时期长安为起点(东汉时为洛阳)，经河西走廊到敦煌。“海上丝绸之路”形成于秦汉时期。<br />
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The "Silk Road" refers to the ancient commercial trade routes starting from China and connecting Asia,Africa and Europe.In a broad sense,it is divided intothe silk road on the land and silk road on the sea.The "land silk road"opened between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD and remained in use until the 16th century.It started from Chang'an in the Western Han Dynasty(or Luoyang in the Eastern Han Dynasty)to Dunhuang via the Gansu Corridor. The "silk road on the sea" formed in the Qin and Han Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3.在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。<br />
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The rising modern press deeplytransformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from thecontent to the form. Then themodern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.<br />
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4.洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。<br />
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Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China.The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of <br />
China's modernhistory andpromoted the Westernization movement.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
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==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br />
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1. The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes, formally established during the Han Dynasty of China, which linked the regions of the ancient world in commerce between 130 BCE-1453 CE.<br />
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丝绸之路是一条古老的贸易路线网，在中国汉朝期间正式建立，它连接了公元前130年至1453年之间的古代世界贸易地区。<br />
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2. The maritime Silk Road was a conduit for trade and cultural exchange between China's south-eastern coastal areas and foreign countries. There were two major routes: the East China Sea Silk Route and the South China Sea Silk Route .<br />
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海上丝绸之路是中国东南沿海地区与外国之间进行贸易和文化交流的渠道。有两条主要路线：东中国海丝绸之路和南中国海丝绸之路。<br />
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3. The Westernization Movement, also called the Self-Strengthening Movement, was championed by some Qing government officials from the early 1860s to the middle 1890s. Its aim was to introduce Western technology and modern industrial equipment. This nationwide movement failed because its advocates were unwilling to disturb the status quo of the ruling class. The Sino-Japanese War, which began in 1804 and ended with the annihilation of China’s Beiyang Fleet, exposed the utter failure of the three-decade-long Westernization Movement. As a result, reform-minded Chinese had to seek new ways to save the nation.<br />
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自1860年代初至1890年代中期，一些清政府官员就发起了洋务运动，也被称为自强运动。其目的是引进西方技术和现代工业设备。这项全国性运动失败了，因为其拥护者不愿打扰统治阶级的现状。抗日战争始于1804年，结束于北洋舰队的歼灭。这场长达3年之久的洋务运动彻底失败了。结果，具有改革意识的中国人不得不寻求新的方法来拯救国家。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。<br />
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The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.<br />
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The Silk Road was an ancient crossing between Asia and Europe. Its starting point is generally considered to be Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). In fact, it changes with the change of the political center of dynasties. Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), Luoyang, Pingcheng (present-day Datong), Wei Liang (now Kaifeng), Beijing has been the starting point of silk road.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。<br />
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Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。 <br />
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The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.<br />
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4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。<br />
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The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。 前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。<br />
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Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。 海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. Divided into two routes, the East China Sea and the South China Sea, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road sprouted in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, prospered in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road passes through more than 100 countries and regions. It is a major maritime channel for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, and promotes the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。 前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。<br />
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The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement". In the later period, under the banner of "seeking wealth", lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
1.人们通常讲"丝绸之路"的开端,都是从汉代张骞通西域开始,他的"凿空"事业居功至伟,标志着"丝绸之路"的正式开通。<br />
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People usually talk about the beginning of the "Silk Road", are from the Han Dynasty, Zhang Qian through the Western Regions began, his "chiseling" business is a great credit, marking the official opening of the "Silk Road".<br />
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2.在15世纪的明朝永乐时期,郑和七下西洋,将先进的中华物质文化、精神文化和政教文化远播海外,谱写了人类航海史上的新篇章,稳定了当时的东南亚国际秩序,开辟了中国—印度洋航路,将古代海上丝绸之路推向鼎盛。<br />
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In the 15th century, during the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He made seven trips to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material, spiritual, political and religious culture overseas, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order in Southeast Asia at that time, opening up the China-Indian Ocean route, and bringing the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its heyday.<br />
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During the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century, Zheng He made seven voyages to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material culture, spiritual culture, and political and religious culture abroad, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order of Southeast Asia at that time, and opening up The China-Indian Ocean Route pushed the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its peak.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.近代的西学东渐,对中国社会产生了广泛而深远的影响,改变了中国人对外部世界的认识。几乎所有的西学门类,以及各种各样的思潮、学说、观念都先后传入中国,在新与旧、古与今、中与外的碰撞中,中国的各种学术得到了极大的开拓和发展。<br />
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The Western learning in modern times had a wide and far-reaching impact on Chinese society and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all the Western disciplines, as well as all kinds of ideas, doctrines and concepts, were introduced to China one after another, and in the collision between the old and the new, the ancient and the modern, and the Chinese and the foreign, Chinese scholarship was greatly developed.<br />
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The spread of western learning in modern times has had a broad and far-reaching impact on Chinese society, and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all Western learning disciplines, as well as various ideological trends, doctrines, and concepts have been introduced to China. In the collision of new and old, ancient and modern, and China and foreign countries, various academic studies in China have been greatly developed. And development.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动是我国近代教育史的开端,可以说,它不仅是对我国传统教育的一次重要变革,更是我国现代教育制度萌芽的一个重要时期。<br />
The westernization movement is the beginning of China's modern education history, it can be said that it is not only an important change to China's traditional education, but also an important period for the sprouting of China's modern education system.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Westernization Movement is the beginning of modern education history in our country. It can be said that it is not only an important change to our traditional education, but also an important period of the germination of our modern education system.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。<br />
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By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met. <br />
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In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。<br />
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Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。<br />
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The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.<br />
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The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。<br />
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The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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1. 汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。这条通道，就是后世闻名的“丝绸之路”。丝绸之路则成为“一带一路”的重要历史符号，使得我们高举和平发展的旗帜，积极发展与沿线国家的经济合作伙伴关系。 <br />
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Although the missions to the western Regions in the Han Dynasty were originally aimed for military purposes, their influence went far beyond the military scope. This passageway was later known as the Silk Road. The silk road has become an important historical symbol of "One Belt And One Road", which makes us hold high the banner of peaceful development and actively develop economic partnership with countries along the route.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 郑和当时率领着世界上最强大的船队下西洋，带去的不是血与火、掠夺与殖民，而是瓷器、丝绸、茶叶。下西洋是世界航海史上的壮举，现在东南亚一带还有许多几年内郑和的建筑物，表达了人们对他的尊敬。<br />
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Leading the most powerful fleet in the world, Zheng He made seven voyages to the Western Seas, bringing there porcelain, silk and tea, rather than bloodshed, plundering or colonialism. Zheng He's voyages were a great feat in the world's navigation history. There are still many buildings in present Southeast Asia dedicated to his memory.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 自十七世纪开始的西学东渐，对明清之际实学思潮的兴起起到了催生作用。<br />
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Since the 17th century, the west knowledge spread to the east gradually, which accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasty.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Eastward Spread of Western Learning starting from the 17th century accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasties.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。洋务教育是洋务派为了满足洋务运动的需要，培养洋务人才进行的教育变革。<br />
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The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enllightenment in China. Westernization education was an education reformation launched by Westernization Faction intending to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The historical role of the foreign affairs movement is not only in the economy, but also in the enlightenment of modern Chinese thought. Westernization education is the educational reform carried out by Westernization Faction in order to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.<br />
<br />
2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
<br />
The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.<br />
<br />
3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。<br />
<br />
The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.<br />
<br />
4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
<br />
Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
==Lo, Minh Thao==<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
1 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
<br />
The Overland Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC), when Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian on a mission to the western Regions. Starting from the capital Chang 'an (now Xi 'an), it passed through Gansu and Xinjiang, reached central Asia and West Asia, and connected the Mediterranean countries on land. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the starting point of the Silk Road was Luoyang. Its primary function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2 郑和具备军事才能，并且得到朱棣的信任。在朱棣决策下西洋时，郑和正当壮年。朱棣曾询问袁忠彻以郑和率军出使是否合适，袁忠彻认为合适。<br />
<br />
Zheng He had military talents and Zhu Di trusted him. When Zhu Di was planning to the West, Zheng He was in his prime. Zhu Di had asked Yuan Zhongche whether Zheng was the right person on such massion. Yuan Zhongche thought he was appropriate.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3 徐光启较早师从利玛窦学习西方的天文、历法、数学、测量和水利等科学技术，毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。<br />
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Xu Guangqi studied western science and technology such as astronomy, calendar, mathematics, measurement and water conservancy under Matteo Ricci. He devoted his whole life to the research of science and technology and wrote assiduously. He was an active promoter in introducing and absorbing European science and technology and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4 曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。<br />
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Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。<br />
A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.<br />
<br />
2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。<br />
Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.<br />
<br />
3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times.<br />
<br />
4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
1.传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点。<br />
<br />
The traditional silk road starts from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reaches the Mediterranean Sea through Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc. with Rome as the end point.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.在地文航海技方面，郑和下西洋的地文航海技术，是以海洋科学知识和航海图为依据，运用了航海罗盘、计程仪、测深仪等航海仪器，按照海图、针路簿记载来保证船舶的航行路线。<br />
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In terms of geographical navigation technology, Zheng He's geographical navigation technology was based on marine scientific knowledge and nautical charts. He used navigational instruments such as compass, log and depth sounder to ensure the navigation route of the ship according to the records of charts and needle books.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。<br />
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After the Sino Japanese War, because China was facing with the fate of national destruction, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.经过两次鸦片战争的失败，以及太平天国的打击，清朝内外交困，清朝的一部分官僚开始认识到西方坚船利炮的威力。为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the two Opium Wars and the attack of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing Dynasty was beset by internal and external troubles, and some of the bureaucrats in the Qing Dynasty began to realize the power of the western strong ships and cannons. In order to relieve domestic and foreign troubles, enrich the country and strengthen the army, and maintain the rule of the Qing Dynasty, they began to learn western culture and advanced technology.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。<br />
<br />
Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.<br />
<br />
Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far-reaching, well beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。<br />
<br />
The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's "western" voyage.<br />
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3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。<br />
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Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.<br />
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Ricci spread western knowledge of geometry and geography as well as humanist views to Chinese society, opening the way for scholars in the late Ming Dynasty to absorb western studies.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．<br />
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Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arsenal founded by the Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, the technology was still monopolized by foreign technicians.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。<br />
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In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.<br />
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2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took "tribute trade" as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted "official trade" and "non-governmental trade".<br />
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3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。<br />
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From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.<br />
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4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。<br />
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During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.<br />
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2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.<br />
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3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.<br />
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4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br />
1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.<br />
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Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。<br />
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Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.<br />
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Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br />
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The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
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The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。<br />
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The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br />
<br />
The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
1、丝绸之路是起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线，最初的作用是运输古代中国出产的丝绸、瓷器等商品，后来成为东方与西方之间在经济、政治、文化等诸多方面进行交流的主要道路。<br />
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The Silk Road was an ancient overland commercial and trade route connecting Asia, Africa and Europe that started from ancient China. Its initial function was to transport commodities such as silk and porcelain produced in ancient China. Later, it became the main road for economic, political and cultural exchanges between the East and the West.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举， 对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用；郑和本人，也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。 晚清以降，郑和研究获得迅速发展，但不少重要课题仍无定论。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages to the West were an unprecedented feat in the maritime history of the world at the beginning of the 15th century, which played a positive role in the economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. Zheng himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and memory of the world. Since the late Qing Dynasty, the study of Zheng has achieved rapid development, but many important issues are still not conclusive.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、徐光启，上海人，是自李时珍后的明代又一位杰出的科学家。他生于嘉靖41年即公元1562年，父亲是个小商人，家里有一点土地，但日子过得并不宽裕，所以徐光启从小就从事农业生产劳动，这对他后来的成长有很大影响。<br />
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Xu Guangqi, a Native of Shanghai, was another outstanding scientist in the Ming Dynasty after Li Shizhen. He was born in 1562, the year of the 41st emperor jiajing. His father was a merchant and his family had a little land, but his life was not very well-off. Therefore, Xu Guangqi was engaged in agricultural production and labor from an early age, which had a great influence on his later growth.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。<br />
<br />
Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br />
<br />
==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
1.丝绸之路促进了中外经济文化的交流，也密切了汉族与沿途的其他少数民族的关系，促进了我国西北地区的开发。<br />
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The Silk Road has enhanced economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, as well as closer relations between the Han nationality and other minorities along the route, and promoted the development of the northwest China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.21世纪海上丝绸之路的战略合作伙伴并不仅限与东盟，而是增进同沿边国家和地区的交往，串起连通东盟、南亚、西亚、北非、欧洲等各大经济板块的市场链，发展面向南海、太平洋和印度洋的战略合作经济带，以亚欧非经济贸易一体化为发展的长期目标。<br />
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The strategic partners of the Maritime Silk Road in the 21st century are not only limited to ASEAN, but also to promote exchanges with countries and regions along the border, linking the market chains of ASEAN, South Asia, West Asia, North Africa, Europe and other major economic sectors, and developing a strategic cooperative economic belt for the South China Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, with Asia-Europe and Africa economic and trade integration as the long-term goal of development.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.发生在明末清初并且延续到清朝中叶，伴随着耶稣会士来华传教而展开的西方科技传入中国的历史事件，被称为西学东渐第一波。它给中国科技发展带来了全新的可能性。<br />
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The historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China, which took place in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and lasted until the middle of the Qing dynasty, accompanied by the Jesuits' mission to China, is known as the first wave of The Eastward Spread of Western Learning. It brings new possibilities to the development of science and technology in China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然有种种缺陷和弊端，但主要历史作用是积极的，是中国近代史上的一次进步运动。它促进了民族资本主义的发展，延缓了而不是加速了中国半殖民地化的进程。<br />
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Although the Westernization Movement has various defects and drawbacks, its main historical role is positive. As a progressive movement in the modern history of China, it promoted the development of national capitalism and delayed rather than accelerated the process of China's semi-colonization.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。<br />
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The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。<br />
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Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。<br />
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The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。<br />
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Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。<br />
Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.<br />
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Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions was not only an extremely difficult and dangerous diplomatic trip, but also a fruitful scientific investigation. Zhang Qian conducted field investigation and research work on the vast Western Regions.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。<br />
At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.<br />
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At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academia have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。<br />
During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.<br />
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During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach and bring western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while The development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China continues to introduce Western culture, and foreign countries continue to introduce Chinese culture. In this process, China has gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳。它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
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1.The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries. The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk from ancient China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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2.The "maritime Silk Road" is a maritime channel for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. The road is mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it is also called the South China Sea Silk Road. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.<br />
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3.除了传教士之外，许多来华的官员、探险家等也成为传入西学的重要媒介，例如将领戈登对于中国洋务时期军事的影响。主持海关总税务司的赫德对于西方管理制度的引入，以及译介书籍、最早西方军乐队的引入都有影响。<br />
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3.Besides missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media for the introduction of Western learning, such as general Gordon's influence on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Revenue Department of customs, had an influence on the introduction of Western management system, the translation of books and the introduction of the earliest Western military band.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4.洋务运动内容涉及军事、政治、经济、外交等，以“自强”为名，兴办军事工业并围绕军事工业开办其他企业，建立新式武器装备的陆海军。洋务派经营的这些近代企业，是在不改变封建统治为前提下所办企业，具有很强的对外依赖性、封建性和一定程度的垄断性。<br />
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4.The Westernization Movement involved military affairs, politics, economy, diplomacy and so on. In the name of "self-improvement", the Westernization Movement set up military industry and other enterprises around the military industry to establish the army and Navy with new weapons and equipment. These modern enterprises managed by the Westernization clique were established on the premise of not changing the feudal rule, and had strong external dependence, feudalism and a certain degree of monopoly.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
1.2100多年前，中国汉代的张骞两次出使中亚，开启了中国同中亚各国友好交往的大门，开辟出一条横贯东西、连接欧亚的丝绸之路。千百年来，在这条古老的丝绸之路上，各国人民共同谱写出千古传诵的友好篇章。<br />
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The Silk Road first emerged more than 2,100 years ago during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 24) after China's imperial envoy Zhang Qian twice visited Central Asia. It became a bridge between East and West, opening the door to friendly engagement between China and Central Asia. For two millennia, countless tales of everlasting friendship between peoples have been woven into this ancient network.<br />
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2.中国走的是一条和平发展之路。作为拥有五千年文明积淀的东方大国，中国人历来崇尚以和为贵，从来就没有对外扩张的基因。600多年前，郑和率领当时世界上最强大的船队七次远航太平洋和西印度洋，到访30多个国家和地区，没有侵占一寸土地。这对于当年热衷于殖民扩张的西方国家来说，简直是不可思议，但中国确实做到了。<br />
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China follows a path of peaceful development. China is a big country in the East with a five-thousand-year civilization. The Chinese believe in peace. There’s not a single bone of making external expansionism in the body of the Chinese. As early as over six hundred years ago, the Chinese navigator Zheng He led the biggest fleet in the world to the Pacific and west Indian Oceans on seven expeditions, visiting over thirty countries and regions, not taking a single inch of land. That was actually quite inconceivable for those Western powers who were busy making colonial expansion, but the Chinese did that. <br />
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3.在19世纪的西学东渐中，基督新教的教士也开始进入中国，天主教士也随口岸的开放来往各地，他们成立教会学校、医院，并开设印书馆、设立期刊、并译著大量各种书籍。对于西学的传入有很大贡献。<br />
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In the 19th century, Protestant priests also began to enter China, and Catholics also came with the opening of the ports. They established schools and hospitals, printed books, set up periodicals, and translated a large number of books. They contributed greatly to the Eastward Spread of Western learning。<br />
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4.在新航路的开辟，文艺复兴，宗教改革运动，资产阶级革命，产业革命的推动下，至洋务运动发生时，资本主义世界体系已初步完成，人类进入了一个新时期，这也是历史发展的必然。<br />
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Driven by the opening of new routes, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the bourgeois revolution, the industrial revolution, and by the time of the foreign affairs movement, the capitalist world system had been initially completed and mankind had entered a new period, which was a natural development of history.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。<br />
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Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。<br />
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Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。<br />
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After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。<br />
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The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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1.丝绸之路是古代中国联系中亚、西亚、非洲和欧洲的交通要道。19世纪，德国一个地理学家首次使用“丝绸之路”这一术语，一直沿用到今天。期初，它指从中国新疆到中亚的陆地通道。<br />
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The Silk Road was a general name for the ancient strategic transportation channel which started from China and passed through Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and Europe. In the 19th century, when the name of Silk Road was first used by a German geographer, it just included the land road from China’s Xinjiang to Central Asia.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路在时间和空间上经过了长期的发展，在东方各国共同的经营下，形成了东方历史上一道独特而壮丽的风景，至今仍然承载着东方文明的传统。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road has gone through long-term development in time and space. Under the joint management of eastern countries, it has formed a unique and magnificent scenery in the history of the East and still carries the tradition of eastern civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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3.中华文明是古代六大原生文明之一，由于所处的独特地理位置，中华文明的发展一直具有极强的独立性，较少受到其他文明的影响。但随着历史向前发展，中国与世界的联系也更为密切，直到明末清初“西学东渐”，中国人才第一次系统地接触到西方文明。<br />
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The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history progressed, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history moving forward, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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4.洋务运动创办了近代中国由国人自办的最早一批军用和民用近代企业，揭开了中国资本主义生产方式的序幕。<br />
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The Westernization Movement established the first modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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The Westernization Movement established the first bunch of modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
1.今人回顾历史，“张骞通西域”已是一段家喻户晓的美谈，张骞也成为历史记载的第一位出使西域的中原人。<br />
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As we look back on history, the story of Zhang Qian's visit to the Western Regions is a well-known story, and Zhang Qian became the first Chinese to travel to the Western Regions in history.<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路的极盛时期出现在元明两代，明代早期的郑和曾经七次下西洋。这种密切交流一直持续到明代中期。后来，清政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，才让海上丝绸之路失去了夺目的光彩。<br />
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The heyday of the Maritime Silk Road came during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, when Zheng He made seven trips to the West in the early Ming Dynasty. This close exchange continued until the mid-Ming Dynasty. It was only later that the Qing government adopted a policy of seclusion that caused the Maritime Silk Road to lose its dazzling lustre.<br />
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3.西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。<br />
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Although the Eastward Spread of Western Learning can also be used to refer to the introduction of Western ideas into China from ancient times to the present day, it is usually used to refer to the introduction of European and American ideas during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the late Qing and early Republican periods.<br />
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4.洋务运动直接继承了林则徐、魏源的“中学为体、西学为用”的学西方思想，并把这种思想付诸实践，所以洋务运动开始是顺应历史潮流的，只是在后来发展过程中，应该继续变革而不去变革，致使其以违反历史潮流而结束。<br />
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The Westernization Movement directly inherited Lin Zexu's and Wei Yuan's idea of learning from the West, and put this idea into practice, so it was in line with the historical trend at the beginning, but later in the process of development, it should have continued to change but did not do so, resulting in the end of the movement against the historical trend. --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 04:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。<br />
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1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. <br />
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The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。<br />
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2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。<br />
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3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.<br />
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Western learning refers to the historical process of the dissemination of Western academic thought to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things from ancient times to the present time into China, it usually refers to the end. During the early Qing Dynasty and the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republican period, academic ideas were introduced into Europe and the United States.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。<br />
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4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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1.明代中期以后，政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，与此同时，造船技术和航海技术不断发展，海上交通代之而起，使丝绸之路贸易全面走向衰落。<br />
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After the mid-Ming Dynasty, the government adopted a policy of shutting down the country. At the same time, shipbuilding technology and navigation technology continued to develop, and maritime traffic took its place, causing the Silk Road trade to decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After the middle of Ming Dynasty, the government adopted the policy of self-seclusion. At the same time, the shipbuilding technology and navigation technology developed continuously, and the maritime transportation replaced it, which made the Silk Road trade decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和，这位航海史上的先驱，以智慧为舵，扬起和平的风帆，缔造了世界航海业发展的里程碑，厚植了“一带一路”的文化底色与民心基石，书写了中国同其他国家友好交往的千古佳话。<br />
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Zheng He, a pioneer in the history of navigation, took wisdom as the rudder and raised the sail of peace. He created a milestone in the development of the world’s navigation industry. An eternal story of friendly exchanges between countries.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。<br />
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Matteo Ricci spread Western geometry, geography knowledge, and humanistic views to Chinese society, and developed the ethos of scholar-officials in the late Ming Dynasty to learn Western studies.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Matteo Ricci spread the Western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which opened the atmosphere for the literati to learn western learning in the late Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
1、丝绸之路经过亚洲、中东、北非和欧洲。几个世纪以来，丝绸之路是东西方交流的最重要的线路。尽管名字叫丝绸之路，人们进行贸易的商品却不仅仅是丝绸。玄奘和马可·波罗都留下了他们丝绸之路之旅的详尽记录。<br />
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The Silk Road went through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road was the most important line of communication connecting East and West. Although it's called the Silk Road, people traded much more than silk. Both Xuan Zang and Marco Polo left detailed records of their journeys along the Silk Road.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Silk Road passes through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road has been the most important route for exchanges between East and West. Although it is called the Silk Road, the goods people trade are not just silk. Both Xuanzang and Marco Polo kept detailed records of their Silk Road journey. --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、郑和（1317-1435）是中国最有名的探险家之一。1405至1433年间，郑和完成了七次著名的航行。他游览了亚洲和非洲的许多国家。郑和还从他游览的国家带回来很多礼物，像药品，珍珠和珍禽异兽。<br />
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Zheng He (1371-1435) was one of China's most famous explorers. Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As one of China's most famous explorers,Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。 <br />
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The rising modern press deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The modern newspapers and periodicals that emerged in the tide of western learning changed the traditional aesthetic mechanism, and caused a fundamental change in aesthetics from content to form, thus contributing to the modern transformation of Chinese aesthetics.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。 <br />
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Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China. The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of China's modern history and promoted the Westernization movement. The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enlightenment in China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
1. 张骞是丝绸之路的开拓者，被誉为“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”。他将中原文明传播至西域，又从西域诸国引进了汗血马、葡萄、苜蓿、石榴、胡麻等物种到中原，促进了东西方文明的交流。<br />
Zhang Qian is a pioneer of the Silk Road, known as "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world". He spread the civilization of the Central Plains to the western regions, and introduced species such as Ferghana horse, grapes, alfalfa, pomegranates and flax to the Central Plains, which promoted the exchange of eastern and Western civilizations.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 郑和每下西洋都带着一支威武雄壮的仪仗队，每到一国登陆时，前呼后拥，彩旗飘扬，服饰灿烂，刀光剑影，使人望而生畏，从而展示中国的富强。<br />
Every time Zheng He went to the west, he carried a powerful and majestic guard of honor. When he landed in a country, he was surrounded by people, with colorful flags flying, splendid costumes and swords, which made people awe at the sight and showed China's prosperity.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。其虽然亦可以泛指自上古以来一直到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。<br />
The spread of Western learning to the East refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic thoughts to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can generally refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to the present, it usually refers to the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties and the late Qing and early Republic of China.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。<br />
At the initiative of Zeng Guofan, China's first ship was built, the first military academy was established, the first batch of Western books was printed and translated, and the first batch of students was arranged to study in the United States.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
1公元前2世纪，中国就开始开辟通往西域的丝绸之路。汉代使节(envoy)张骞于公元前138年和 119年两次出使西域。<br />
In the 2nd century BC, China began working on the Silk Road leading to the Western Regions. In138 BC and 119 BC, envoy Zhang Qian of the Han Dynasty made a trip to these regions respectively.<br />
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In the 2nd century BC, China began working on the Silk Road leading to the Western Regions. In 138 BC and 119 BC, envoy Zhang Qian of the Han Dynasty made a trip to these regions respectively.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2，西汉时期,中国的商船队就到达了印度和斯里兰卡(Sri Lanka),用中国的丝绸 换取了琉璃(colored glaze)、珍珠等物品。<br />
In the Western Han Dynasty, China's merchant fleets sailed to as far as India and Sri Lanka to trade China's silk for colored glazes, pearls and other products.<br />
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In the Western Han Dynasty, China's merchant fleets sailed to as far as India and Sri Lanka to trade China's silk for colored glazes, pearls and other products.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3，唐代是中国历史上对外交流的活跃期。据史料记载，与唐代通使交好的国家多达70多个,那时候的首都长安云集了来自各国的使臣、商人和留学生。这种大交流使中华文化远播世界,也促进了各国文化和物产传入中国。<br />
The Tang Dynasty saw dynamic interactions between China and other countries. According to historical documents, th Tang Dynasty exchanged envoys with over 70 countries, and Chang' an, the capital of Tang, bustled with envoys, merchants and students from other countries. 'Exchanges of this magnitude helped the spread of the Chinese culture to the rest of the world and the introduction of the culture and products from other countries into China.<br />
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The Tang Dynasty saw dynamic interactions between China and other countries. According to historical documents, the Tang Dynasty exchanged envoys with over 70 countries, and Chang' an, the capital of Tang, bustled with envoys, merchants and students from other countries. Exchanges of this magnitude helped the spread of the Chinese culture to the rest of the world and the introduction of the culture and products from other countries into China.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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1.张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过"丝绸之路"迅速向四周传播。<br />
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Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and The Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。<br />
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Since its opening in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Maritime Silk Road has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.<br />
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3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。<br />
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The influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture brought by the eastward dissemination of Western learning can only be matched by the contention of a hundred schools of thought in Chinese history.<br />
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4.洋务运动推动了近代中国生产力的发展，促使了中国民族资本主义的产生。<br />
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Westernization movement advanced the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:47, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was originally to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and the Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road in Qin and Han Dynasties, it has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.In Chinese history, only contention of a hundred schools of thought can match the great influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture caused by the the eastward spreading of western learning.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.The Westernization Movement promoted the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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1."海上丝绸之路"是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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The "South China Sea Silk Road" is also known as the Maritime Cultural Communication Center of China. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只最多（240多艘）、海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，比欧洲国家航海时间早几十年，是明朝强盛的直接体现。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages to the West were the largest, the largest number of ships (more than 240), the largest number of seafarers and the longest voyages in ancient China. They were decades earlier than those of European countries. They were the direct manifestation of the prosperity of the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。<br />
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During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period. Missionaries not only spread Christian doctrine, but also introduced a lot of science and technology.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动的最根本的指导思想是"自强"、"求富"。 其分类思想就是"师夷制夷" 、"中体西用" 八个字。前四个字"师夷制夷" 表明洋务运动与外国资本主义侵略者的关系，即学习西方的长技用以抵制西方的侵略。<br />
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The most fundamental guiding ideology of Westernization Movement is "self strengthening" and "seeking wealth". Its classification thought is "learning from foreigners, controlling foreigners" and "Chinese style and western use". The first four words "learning from foreigners and controlling foreigners" indicate the relationship between the Westernization Movement and foreign capitalist invaders, that is, learning from Western long-term skills to resist Western aggression.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。<br />
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The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。<br />
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The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，<br />
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The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br />
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The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。<br />
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In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。<br />
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Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the "treasure ship", with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。<br />
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In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of "Western learning", traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。<br />
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The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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丝绸之路是汉唐千余年间中外经济、文化交流的重要通道，为汉朝的强大，乃至整个中华民族的强大奠定了坚实的基础。<br />
Silk Road, a significant path of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries during the Han and Tang Dynasty, which lasted for over thousand years, laying a solid foundation for greatness of the Han Dynasty, and even that of the whole Chinese nation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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回望历史，浩浩荡荡，郑和七下西洋堪称中国“海上丝绸之路”最壮丽的诗篇，也是人类航海史第一个高峰。<br />
Looking back at the history, Zheng He’s seven voyages to the wast was the most magnificent poem of China’s “Maritime Silk Road”, as well as the first peak in the history of human navigation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。<br />
After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of foreigners and "learn from the advanced technologies in the West in order to resist the invasion of the Western powers.”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
Westernization Movement, also known as self-improvement movement, was a self-saving movement that westernization school in the late Qing Dynasty introduced western military equipments, machine production, science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路全长约7000公里，经由这条线路所进行的贸易中，中国的丝绸最具代表性，因此得名“丝绸之路”。<br />
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The total length of the silk road is about 7000 km. Among the trade carried out along this route, China's silk is the most representative, so it is named the "Silk Road". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 在中国，作为国家的政治任务，郑和下西洋对于中国的经济的刺激作用微乎其微。而在西方，东方的商品和航海贸易的利润直接加速了资本主义的原始积累。<br />
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In China, as a national political task, Zheng He's Voyages had little stimulating effect on China's economy. However, in the west, the profits from the eastern commodity and maritime trade directly accelerated the primitive accumulation of capitalism. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 甲午战争以后，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。<br />
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After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, many people with breadth of vision began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared. They learned a lot from the West about natural science and social science, and demanded political reform. During this period, a large amount of Western knowledge was introduced into China, and its influence was very extensive. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 洋务运动前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，采用西方先进生产技术，创办了一批近代军事工业。<br />
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In the early stage of Westernization Movement, the School of Westernization established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement" and adopting advanced western production technology. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early stage of Westernization Movement, under the banner of "self-improvement",the School of Westernization adopted advanced western production technology and established a number of modern military industries.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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1. 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。<br />
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The overland Silk Road originated in the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 years ago). Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the Western Regions to open up an overland route starting from the capital Chang'an (now Xi'an), passing through Gansu and Xinjiang, to Central and West Asia, and connecting Mediterranean countries. <br />
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2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险<br />
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Zheng He's voyage to the West was the largest sea voyage in ancient China with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. It was also the largest series of sea explorations in world history before the voyage of the great geographical discovery in Europe at the end of the 15th century.<br />
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3. 尽管如此，纵观中国近代西学东渐的历史,它的成就是巨大的。虽然经历了由表及里、由浅入深的艰难探索和吸收过程,但毕竟使中国的近代化历程大大加速,客观上加快了清王朝灭亡的脚步,为中国早日推翻一个旧世界,建立一个新世界奠定了基础。但墨守成规、亦步亦趋的学习心理使中国的每一步学习都事倍功半,成效大打折扣.学习中的'一边倒'现象和盲目照搬现象使中国的西学东渐走了许多弯路,学习中的'急功近利'思想也是造成西学东渐成效甚微的重要原因。<br />
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In spite of this, looking at the history of the spread of western learning to the east in modern China, its achievements are huge. Although it has gone through a difficult process of exploration and absorption from the outside to the inside and from the shallow to the deep, it has greatly accelerated China's modernization process, objectively accelerated the pace of the demise of the Qing Dynasty, and laid a foundation for China to overthrow an old world and establish a new world as soon as possible. However, the learning psychology of sticking to the rules and following the same trend makes every step of China's learning get twice the result with half the effort and the effect is greatly reduced. The phenomenon of "one-sided" and blind copying in learning have led to many detours in the spread of western learning to the east in China, and the thought of "eager for quick success and instant benefits" in learning is also an important reason for the little effect of the spread of western learning to the east.<br />
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4. 洋务运动后期，洋务派为解决军事工业资金、燃料、运输等方面的困难，打出“求富”的旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。<br />
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In the late period of the Westernization Movement, in order to solve the difficulties in capital, fuel and transportation of military industry, the Westernization Movement set up a number of civilian industries under the banner of "seeking wealth".<br />
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 03:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。<br />
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Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。<br />
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Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br />
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In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
1.东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
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The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. It was also called the "Maritime Ceramic Road" and the "Sea Spice Road".<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times.<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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The Westernization Movement, also known as the self-improvement movement. It was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization School in the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to bring in Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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1. 张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过“丝绸之路”迅速向四周传播。<br />
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Zhang Wei out of the Western Region to carry out the Han Wu Emperor United Moon's strategic intention to fight against the Hunnu, but out of the Western Region after the Hanyi cultural exchanges frequent, the Central Plains civilization through the "Silk Road" spread rapidly around.<br />
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2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。<br />
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Zheng He's Voyage to the West Was the largest, largest and longest maritime voyage in ancient China, and the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the great geographical discovery of Europe at the end of the 15th century.<br />
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3. 在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们（较晚亦有方济各会、多明我会等的教士），在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。<br />
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Missionaries played a very important role in a wave of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing years, when the missionaries, mainly Catholic Jesuits (later franciscans, polyseigns, etc.), introduced Western scientific and technological academic ideas and translated a large number of Western academic books while trying to introduce Catholicism to China.<br />
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4. 甲午战争的结果给中华民族带来空前严重的民族危机，大大加深了中国社会半殖民地化的程度；另一方面则使日本国力更为强大，为其跻身列强奠定了重要基础。<br />
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The result of the Sino-Japanese War brought unprecedented serious national crisis to the Chinese nation, which greatly deepened the degree of semi-colonization of Chinese society, and on the other hand, made Japan stronger and laid an important foundation for its ranks among the great power.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:22, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
1.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线。<br />
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Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which started in the ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which originated from ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。<br />
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Maritime Silk Road is the sea-lane by through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with other countries. This Silk Road is mainly centered with the South China Sea, thus is called the South China Sea Silk Road as well. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Maritime Silk Road is the sea route through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with foreign countries. This Silk Road centered on the South China Sea, thus being called the South China Sea Silk Road as well.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic process of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty and the modern times.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic course of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty to the modern times.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, is a self-helping movement carried out by the late Qing dynasty in the 1860s and 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, was a self-helping movement carried out by the westernization group of the late Qing dynasty from the 1860s to 1990s for introducing Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to China to save the Qing government.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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1.张骞到大宛后，向大宛国王说明了自己出使月氏的使命和沿途种种遭遇，希望大宛能派人相送，并表示今后如能返回汉朝，一定奏明汉皇，送他很多财物，重重酬谢。大宛王本来早就风闻东方汉朝的富庶，很想与汉朝通使往来，但苦于匈奴的中梗阻碍，未能实现。汉使的意外到来，使他非常高兴。<br />
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After arriving in Dayuan, Zhang Qian explained to the king of Dawan his mission and experiences along the way, and hoped that Dawan could send men to escort him to the Darouzhi. He also said that if he could return to the Han Dynasty in the future, he would tell the emperor of Han and implore him to send a lot of wealth and rewards to the The the king of Dawan. The King of Dawan had long heard of the wealth of the Han Dynasty and wanted to communicate with Han, but he failed to do so because of the hindrance from the Xiongnu. The unexpected arrival of han Emissary made him very happy.<br />
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2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。<br />
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Zheng He's expeditions were the largest in ancient China, with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. They were also the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the voyages of European geographical discoveries at the end of the 15th century.<br />
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3.此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。<br />
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At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time. Missionaries spread the Christian doctrine, but also spread a lot of science and technology.<br />
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4.为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。<br />
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In order to relieve domestic troubles and foreign invasion, enrich the country and strengthen the army to maintain the rule of Qing dynasty, some people began to learn Western culture and advanced technology, so they were called westernization Group.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。<br />
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1.Zhang Qian made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia, and even to Europe. From then on, the Chinese used this channel to sell silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia. At the same time introduce gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。<br />
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2.Zheng He's voyage to the West was the largest sea voyage in ancient China, the largest number of ships and seafarers, and the longest time. It was also the largest series of sea expeditions in the history of the world before the voyage of the great geographical discovery in Europe at the end of the 15th century.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。其虽然亦可以泛指自上古以来一直到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。<br />
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3.The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also generally refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to the present, it usually refers to the academic thoughts in Europe and the United States during the two periods of the late Ming and early Qing and the late Qing and the early Republic. Incoming.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动的内容之一是创办新式学校，选送留学生出国深造，培养翻译人才、军事人才和科技人才。1862年在北京设立的京师同文馆，就是中国最早的官办新式学校。<br />
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One of the contents of the Westernization Movement was to establish new schools, select and send overseas students to study abroad, and train translators, military talents and scientific and technological talents. The Jingshi Tongwenguan, established in Beijing in 1862, was the earliest government-run new school in China.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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不仅是中国与这些国家进行交流，通过丝路，印度、东南亚、中东、非洲和欧洲之间的贸易交流也迅速活跃起来。<br />
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The Silk Road not only deepen exchanges between China and these countries, but also gave an impetus to trades between India, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Europe.<br />
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郑和下西洋的路线，被称为海上丝绸之路，那是一条向往陌生的海岸线的开放之路。 <br />
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The sailing routes of Zheng He, also known as the Maritime Silk Road, was an open road symbolizing people's aspiration to unfamiliar coastlines.<br />
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明末清初,西方传教士来华传教,掀起了西学东渐的第一次高潮。<br />
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In the late Ming and early Qing dynasty, lots of western missionaries came to China , which brought the first upsurge of the Eastward spread of Western learning.<br />
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洋务运动的主要人物具有典型性和代表性的是张之洞和李鸿章。<br />
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The main figures of the Westernization Movement are Zhang Zhidong and Li Hongzhang.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
1.唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。<br />
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The prosperous Silk Road in the Tang dynasty also further promoted the exchange of thoughts and cultures between the east and the west, and had a lot of positive and far-reaching effects on the later development of both side’s social and national ideologies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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2.欧洲人相继进行全球性海上扩张活动，特别是地理大发现，开启了大航海时代，开辟了世界性海洋贸易新时代。西欧商人的海上扩张，改变了传统海上丝绸之路以和平贸易为基调的特性，商业活动常常伴随着战争硝烟和武装抢劫。<br />
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The European maritime expansion around the world, especially the discovery of the Age of Discovery, ushered in a new era of world trade in the oceans. The maritime expansion of western european merchants, often accompanied by war and armed robbery, changed the traditional sea route of Silk Road of peaceful trade.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展,但许多传统的学术受到西学的冲击。<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought to China various new academic achievements in modern times, deeply affecting the development of various academic disciplines. Many subjects which were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China were also developed under this influence. On the contrary many traditional academies have been impacted by Western academies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动是近代教育的开端。要开始洋务运动，兴办洋务就必须要有精通洋务的人才，但是中国传统的科举制教育却远远无法满足洋务运动对人才的需要。因此兴办新式学堂，派遣留学生，就成了洋务运动进行下去的一项重要的举措。<br />
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Westernization Movement was the beginning of modern education. In order to start the Westernization Movement, it is necessary to have people who are proficient in Westernization, but the traditional imperial examination system in China can not meet the needs of the Westernization Movement. Therefore, the establishment of new schools and the dispatch of foreign students has become an important initiative of the Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
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==Zubareva, Ekaterina==<br />
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1.Today, Zhang Qian's travels are associated with the major route of transcontinental trade, the Silk Road. His missions opened trade routes between East and West and exposed different products and kingdoms to each other through trade.<br />
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今天，张谦的旅行与跨大陆贸易的主要路线“丝绸之路”相关。 他的任务打开了东西方之间的贸易路线，并通过贸易使不同的产品和王国相互接触。 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.Zheng He generally sought to attain his goals through diplomacy, and his large army awed most would-be enemies into submission. However, a contemporary reported that Zheng He "walked like a tiger" and did not shrink from violence when he considered it necessary to impress foreign peoples with China's military might.<br />
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郑和通常试图通过外交来实现自己的目标，他的大部队敬畏大多数可能成为敌人的敌人。 然而，当代报道说，郑和“走得像老虎一样”，当他认为有必要用中国的军事力量打动外国人民时，并没有因为暴力而退缩。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.With the Jesuits coming to China to preach, the historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China was called the first wave of the introduction of Western learning to the East.<br />
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随着耶稣会士来到中国讲道，西方科学技术传入中国的历史性事件被称为第一波西方知识向东方传入的浪潮。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones into its division of labour.<br />
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到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在将其他主要的新地区纳入其劳动分工中。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_cult&diff=11950920201221 cult2020-12-28T04:51:29Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* Yang Ziling 杨子泠 */</p>
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<div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br />
1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。 结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。 这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。<br />
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他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。 结果，大月氏逃走了，却仍然对匈奴怀恨在心。 这时，汉朝变得越来越强大，汉武帝决定攻打匈奴。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。 仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。<br />
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3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West. <br />
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16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。 他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。 同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br />
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16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。 他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面把天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作引入中国。 同时，他们把中国的儒家和道家思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.<br />
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第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便 建立现代国防。 这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。<br />
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第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，奕䜣（恭亲王）和国内官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，因而他们主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，旨在建立一支现代化的国防军队。 这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了一场向西方列强学习的运动。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
1.传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。<br />
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The traditional Silk Road starts in Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reaches the Mediterranean Sea via the Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq and Syria, ending in Rome, a total length of 6,440 kilometres.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing dynasties, making it the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.此时的西学传入，主要以传教士和一些中国人对西方科学著作的翻译为主。<br />
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The introduction of Western learning at this time was dominated by the translation of Western scientific works by missionaries and some Chinese.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.当时时期主要特点就是整体化和近代化。近代化就是资本主义代替封建专制，这是历史的必然。这也是洋务运动试图走近代化的道理，在世界整体化的趋势下，中国比较被动的卷入。<br />
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The main characteristic of the period was holism and modernisation. Modernisation is the replacement of feudal autocracy by capitalism, which is a historical necessity. This was also the rationale behind the attempts of the Westernization Movement to modernise, with China being more passively involved in the trend towards the globalisation of the world as a whole.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 04:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
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1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。<br />
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The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。<br />
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During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。<br />
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Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。<br />
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The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
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1.丝绸之路不仅是古代亚欧互通有无的商贸大道，还是促进亚欧各国和中国的友好往来，沟通东西方文化的友谊之路。<br />
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The Silk Road is a commercial avenue for exchanges between Asia and Europe in ancient times as well as a road of frienndship that promotes friendly exchanges between Asian and European countries and China.<br />
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The Silk Road is not only a commercial avenue for exchanges of needed goods between ancient Asia and Europe, but also a road of friendship that promotes friendly communications, and cultural exchanges between China and European countries.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.在群星璀璨的中华英杰中，郑和不但以先于西方人航海，胜于西方人的航海技术受到国际社会的关注，而且以其所代表的一种文化精神得到人们的关注。<br />
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Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He not only got the attention for his sailing sills which precended and surpassed Westerns, but also attracted people's attention with the cultural spirit he represented.<br />
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Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He received international concerns not only because of his navigation skills which surpassed the Westerners, but also for a cultural spirit he represented.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐意味着以西方之学术，灌输于中国，使中国日趋于文明富强之境。<br />
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The eastwars spread of western learning means instilling in China with Weastern academics so as to make China more civilized and prosperous.<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning means to instill western academics into China so as to make it more civilized and prosperous.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.处于传统国家和农业文明体系下的中国在面对经过资产阶级革命后的现代国家和工业文明的英国的挑战时显得不堪一击。<br />
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Under the traditional agricultural civilization system, China was such vulnerable to the challenges from England, which was already a modern and highly industrilized country after the bourgeois revolution. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Under the traditional agricultural system, China was too vulnerable to face challenges from the British, which was already a modern and highly industrialized country after the bourgeois revolution.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br />
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1.In 119 BC, Zhang Qian set off on his second journey to the Western Regions.<br />
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公元前119年，张谦出发了他的第二次西域之旅--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.While Zheng's fleet showed off Chinese might and naval prowess, orthodox Chinese histories depict him as never engaging in gunboat diplomacy, rather developing friendships with foreign leaders. <br />
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郑的舰队展示了中国的威力和海军实力，而正统的中国历史则将他描绘为从未从事炮舰外交，而是与外国领导人发展友谊。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.The eastward transmission of Western learning refers to the transmission of Western cultures in China in the mid-1800s.<br />
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西方学习向东传播是指1800年代中期西方文化在中国的传播--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.China has always been a planned economy where the government played a big role in deciding how the country should be controlled. <br />
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中国一直是计划经济国家，政府在决定如何控制国家方面发挥着重要作用。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
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1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。<br />
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A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A vast batch of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road enable this long trip to be one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.作为一个具有野心的拥有回族血统的穆斯林太监、一个典型的游离于儒家学者精英体制之外的人，郑和在1405到1433年间七下西洋，其中六次都在永乐帝的支持下进行。<br />
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An ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent, a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433 with six of them under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As an ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent and a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433, with six expeditions under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:26, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.从19世纪下半叶到20世纪初,伴随着“西学东渐”的进程,西方妇女生活现状、人权思想及女权理论渐次传入中国,引起了中国思想界的关注。<br />
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From the second half of 19th century to the beginning of 20th century, with the progress of the eastward spread of western learning, western women's living situations, thoughts of human rights and feminist theories were gradually introduced into China and attracted the attention of the Chinese ideological circle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。<br />
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Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to western models.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the guidance of the Han scholars with modern thinking, people learned the science and language of the west opened special schools in some big cities. Armouries, factories and docks were also built with reference to Western models.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
1.张骞被誉为伟大的外交家、探险家，是“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”、“丝绸之路的开拓者”、“东方的哥伦布”。<br />
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Zhang Qian, rated as a great diplomat and explorer, is "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world "," the pioneer of the Silk Road" and "Columbus of the East ". --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。<br />
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Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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The Eastward World Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of spreading western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Eastward World Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times when western academic thoughts spread to China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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Westernization Movement, also known as self-strengthening movement. It is a self-help movement that introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s by Westernization School. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
1、张骞出使西域这一历史事件具有特殊的历史意义。张骞对开辟从中国通往西域的丝绸之路有卓越贡献，至今举世称道。<br />
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Zhang Qian’s westward travel is of historic and special significance in Chinese history. Zhang Qian made excellent contributions to the opening of the Silk Road from China to “The Western Regions”, which is even praised by today’s world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、陆路是中西往来的最古老的通道，其主要工具是马和骆驼。但牲畜负载有限，费用巨大。此外沿途自然条件艰险，安全没有保障。所以当航海技术发展起来以后，海路在中西交通中所起的作用越来越重要。<br />
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Land route is the oldest access between China and“The Western Regions” and the major transportation tools were horses and camels. However, the load of those livestock was limited and cost much. Besides, the natural environment along the land route was hard and dangerous, making travelers lost security assurance.Therefore, with the development of seamanship, sea route began to play an increasingly important role in the communications between China and “The Western Regions”. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、明万历年间，随着耶稣会传教士的到来，对中国的学术思想有所触动。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。当时中国一些士大夫及皇帝接受了科学技术上的知识，但是在思想上基本没有受到影响。<br />
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During Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, as the coming of Jesuit missionaries in China, Chinese academic thought was slightly effected by western thought. At the same time of the spreading of Christian doctrines by those missionaries, a large amount of science and technology was introduced into China. Back then, Chinese emperor and some officials accepted knowledge of western science and technology,but their thought didn’t be influenced by the knowledge.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、洋务运动进行30多年虽然没有使中国富强起来，但洋务运动引进了西方先进的科学技术，使中国出现了第一批近代企业，在客观上为中国民族资本主义的产生和发展起到了促进作用。<br />
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The westernization movement which lasted for over 30 years did not make China become richer or stronger, but it introduced the advanced western science and technology which stimulated the emergence of the first modern enterprises, objectively promoting the emergence and development of Chinese national capitalism. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Grosheva, Anna==<br />
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1. To Zhang's surprise, satisfied with their life, the Da Yuezhi people refused to make an alliance against the Huns. <br />
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令张某惊讶的是，大月之人对自己的生活感到满意，拒绝与匈奴结盟。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. He is thought to have become interested in Buddhist teachings later in life and died in India. <br />
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人们认为他晚年对佛教教义感兴趣，并在印度去世。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. This study analyzes four stages of the development of modern sports in Shanghai: germination, growth, thriving, and depression. <br />
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这项研究分析了上海现代体育发展的四个阶段：发芽，成长，繁荣和沮丧。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones.<br />
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到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在完成其他主要新地区的整合。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
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1.丝绸之路是我国古代一条连接中国和欧亚大陆的交通线路，由于这条商路以丝绸贸易为主，故称为“丝绸之路”。<br />
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The Silk Road is a traffic route in the ancienttimes connecting China and Eurasia. This trade route focuses on the trade of silk, hencethe name "theSilk Road".<br />
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2.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代路上商业贸易路线。狭义上讲指陆上丝绸之路。广义上讲分为陆上丝绸之路和海上丝绸之路。“陆上丝绸之路”形成于于公元前2世纪与公元1世纪间，直至16世纪仍保留使用，以西汉时期长安为起点(东汉时为洛阳)，经河西走廊到敦煌。“海上丝绸之路”形成于秦汉时期。<br />
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The "Silk Road" refers to the ancient commercial trade routes starting from China and connecting Asia,Africa and Europe.In a broad sense,it is divided intothe silk road on the land and silk road on the sea.The "land silk road"opened between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD and remained in use until the 16th century.It started from Chang'an in the Western Han Dynasty(or Luoyang in the Eastern Han Dynasty)to Dunhuang via the Gansu Corridor. The "silk road on the sea" formed in the Qin and Han Dynasty.<br />
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3.在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。<br />
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The rising modern press deeplytransformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from thecontent to the form. Then themodern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.<br />
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4.洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。<br />
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Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China.The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of <br />
China's modernhistory andpromoted the Westernization movement.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
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==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br />
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1. The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes, formally established during the Han Dynasty of China, which linked the regions of the ancient world in commerce between 130 BCE-1453 CE.<br />
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丝绸之路是一条古老的贸易路线网，在中国汉朝期间正式建立，它连接了公元前130年至1453年之间的古代世界贸易地区。<br />
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2. The maritime Silk Road was a conduit for trade and cultural exchange between China's south-eastern coastal areas and foreign countries. There were two major routes: the East China Sea Silk Route and the South China Sea Silk Route .<br />
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海上丝绸之路是中国东南沿海地区与外国之间进行贸易和文化交流的渠道。有两条主要路线：东中国海丝绸之路和南中国海丝绸之路。<br />
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3. The Westernization Movement, also called the Self-Strengthening Movement, was championed by some Qing government officials from the early 1860s to the middle 1890s. Its aim was to introduce Western technology and modern industrial equipment. This nationwide movement failed because its advocates were unwilling to disturb the status quo of the ruling class. The Sino-Japanese War, which began in 1804 and ended with the annihilation of China’s Beiyang Fleet, exposed the utter failure of the three-decade-long Westernization Movement. As a result, reform-minded Chinese had to seek new ways to save the nation.<br />
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自1860年代初至1890年代中期，一些清政府官员就发起了洋务运动，也被称为自强运动。其目的是引进西方技术和现代工业设备。这项全国性运动失败了，因为其拥护者不愿打扰统治阶级的现状。抗日战争始于1804年，结束于北洋舰队的歼灭。这场长达3年之久的洋务运动彻底失败了。结果，具有改革意识的中国人不得不寻求新的方法来拯救国家。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。<br />
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The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.<br />
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The Silk Road was an ancient crossing between Asia and Europe. Its starting point is generally considered to be Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). In fact, it changes with the change of the political center of dynasties. Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), Luoyang, Pingcheng (present-day Datong), Wei Liang (now Kaifeng), Beijing has been the starting point of silk road.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。<br />
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Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.<br />
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Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。 <br />
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The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.<br />
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4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。<br />
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The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。 前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。<br />
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Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。 海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. Divided into two routes, the East China Sea and the South China Sea, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road sprouted in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, prospered in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road passes through more than 100 countries and regions. It is a major maritime channel for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, and promotes the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。 前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。<br />
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The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement". In the later period, under the banner of "seeking wealth", lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
1.人们通常讲"丝绸之路"的开端,都是从汉代张骞通西域开始,他的"凿空"事业居功至伟,标志着"丝绸之路"的正式开通。<br />
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People usually talk about the beginning of the "Silk Road", are from the Han Dynasty, Zhang Qian through the Western Regions began, his "chiseling" business is a great credit, marking the official opening of the "Silk Road".<br />
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2.在15世纪的明朝永乐时期,郑和七下西洋,将先进的中华物质文化、精神文化和政教文化远播海外,谱写了人类航海史上的新篇章,稳定了当时的东南亚国际秩序,开辟了中国—印度洋航路,将古代海上丝绸之路推向鼎盛。<br />
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In the 15th century, during the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He made seven trips to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material, spiritual, political and religious culture overseas, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order in Southeast Asia at that time, opening up the China-Indian Ocean route, and bringing the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its heyday.<br />
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During the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century, Zheng He made seven voyages to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material culture, spiritual culture, and political and religious culture abroad, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order of Southeast Asia at that time, and opening up The China-Indian Ocean Route pushed the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its peak.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.近代的西学东渐,对中国社会产生了广泛而深远的影响,改变了中国人对外部世界的认识。几乎所有的西学门类,以及各种各样的思潮、学说、观念都先后传入中国,在新与旧、古与今、中与外的碰撞中,中国的各种学术得到了极大的开拓和发展。<br />
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The Western learning in modern times had a wide and far-reaching impact on Chinese society and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all the Western disciplines, as well as all kinds of ideas, doctrines and concepts, were introduced to China one after another, and in the collision between the old and the new, the ancient and the modern, and the Chinese and the foreign, Chinese scholarship was greatly developed.<br />
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The spread of western learning in modern times has had a broad and far-reaching impact on Chinese society, and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all Western learning disciplines, as well as various ideological trends, doctrines, and concepts have been introduced to China. In the collision of new and old, ancient and modern, and China and foreign countries, various academic studies in China have been greatly developed. And development.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动是我国近代教育史的开端,可以说,它不仅是对我国传统教育的一次重要变革,更是我国现代教育制度萌芽的一个重要时期。<br />
The westernization movement is the beginning of China's modern education history, it can be said that it is not only an important change to China's traditional education, but also an important period for the sprouting of China's modern education system.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Westernization Movement is the beginning of modern education history in our country. It can be said that it is not only an important change to our traditional education, but also an important period of the germination of our modern education system.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。<br />
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By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met. <br />
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In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。<br />
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Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。<br />
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The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.<br />
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The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。<br />
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The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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1. 汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。这条通道，就是后世闻名的“丝绸之路”。丝绸之路则成为“一带一路”的重要历史符号，使得我们高举和平发展的旗帜，积极发展与沿线国家的经济合作伙伴关系。 <br />
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Although the missions to the western Regions in the Han Dynasty were originally aimed for military purposes, their influence went far beyond the military scope. This passageway was later known as the Silk Road. The silk road has become an important historical symbol of "One Belt And One Road", which makes us hold high the banner of peaceful development and actively develop economic partnership with countries along the route.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 郑和当时率领着世界上最强大的船队下西洋，带去的不是血与火、掠夺与殖民，而是瓷器、丝绸、茶叶。下西洋是世界航海史上的壮举，现在东南亚一带还有许多几年内郑和的建筑物，表达了人们对他的尊敬。<br />
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Leading the most powerful fleet in the world, Zheng He made seven voyages to the Western Seas, bringing there porcelain, silk and tea, rather than bloodshed, plundering or colonialism. Zheng He's voyages were a great feat in the world's navigation history. There are still many buildings in present Southeast Asia dedicated to his memory.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 自十七世纪开始的西学东渐，对明清之际实学思潮的兴起起到了催生作用。<br />
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Since the 17th century, the west knowledge spread to the east gradually, which accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasty.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Eastward Spread of Western Learning starting from the 17th century accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasties.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。洋务教育是洋务派为了满足洋务运动的需要，培养洋务人才进行的教育变革。<br />
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The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enllightenment in China. Westernization education was an education reformation launched by Westernization Faction intending to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The historical role of the foreign affairs movement is not only in the economy, but also in the enlightenment of modern Chinese thought. Westernization education is the educational reform carried out by Westernization Faction in order to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。<br />
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Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.<br />
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2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.<br />
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3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
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Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
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==Lo, Minh Thao==<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
1 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
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The Overland Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC), when Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian on a mission to the western Regions. Starting from the capital Chang 'an (now Xi 'an), it passed through Gansu and Xinjiang, reached central Asia and West Asia, and connected the Mediterranean countries on land. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the starting point of the Silk Road was Luoyang. Its primary function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2 郑和具备军事才能，并且得到朱棣的信任。在朱棣决策下西洋时，郑和正当壮年。朱棣曾询问袁忠彻以郑和率军出使是否合适，袁忠彻认为合适。<br />
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Zheng He had military talents and Zhu Di trusted him. When Zhu Di was planning to the West, Zheng He was in his prime. Zhu Di had asked Yuan Zhongche whether Zheng was the right person on such massion. Yuan Zhongche thought he was appropriate.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3 徐光启较早师从利玛窦学习西方的天文、历法、数学、测量和水利等科学技术，毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。<br />
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Xu Guangqi studied western science and technology such as astronomy, calendar, mathematics, measurement and water conservancy under Matteo Ricci. He devoted his whole life to the research of science and technology and wrote assiduously. He was an active promoter in introducing and absorbing European science and technology and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4 曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。<br />
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Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。<br />
A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.<br />
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2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。<br />
Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.<br />
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3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times.<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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1.传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点。<br />
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The traditional silk road starts from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reaches the Mediterranean Sea through Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc. with Rome as the end point.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.在地文航海技方面，郑和下西洋的地文航海技术，是以海洋科学知识和航海图为依据，运用了航海罗盘、计程仪、测深仪等航海仪器，按照海图、针路簿记载来保证船舶的航行路线。<br />
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In terms of geographical navigation technology, Zheng He's geographical navigation technology was based on marine scientific knowledge and nautical charts. He used navigational instruments such as compass, log and depth sounder to ensure the navigation route of the ship according to the records of charts and needle books.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。<br />
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After the Sino Japanese War, because China was facing with the fate of national destruction, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.经过两次鸦片战争的失败，以及太平天国的打击，清朝内外交困，清朝的一部分官僚开始认识到西方坚船利炮的威力。为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。<br />
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After the defeat of the two Opium Wars and the attack of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing Dynasty was beset by internal and external troubles, and some of the bureaucrats in the Qing Dynasty began to realize the power of the western strong ships and cannons. In order to relieve domestic and foreign troubles, enrich the country and strengthen the army, and maintain the rule of the Qing Dynasty, they began to learn western culture and advanced technology.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。<br />
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Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.<br />
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Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far-reaching, well beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。<br />
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The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's "western" voyage.<br />
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3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。<br />
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Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.<br />
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Ricci spread western knowledge of geometry and geography as well as humanist views to Chinese society, opening the way for scholars in the late Ming Dynasty to absorb western studies.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．<br />
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Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arsenal founded by the Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, the technology was still monopolized by foreign technicians.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。<br />
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In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.<br />
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2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took "tribute trade" as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted "official trade" and "non-governmental trade".<br />
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3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。<br />
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From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.<br />
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4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。<br />
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During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.<br />
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2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.<br />
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3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.<br />
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4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br />
1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.<br />
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Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.<br />
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Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。<br />
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Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.<br />
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Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br />
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The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
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The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。<br />
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The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br />
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The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
1、丝绸之路是起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线，最初的作用是运输古代中国出产的丝绸、瓷器等商品，后来成为东方与西方之间在经济、政治、文化等诸多方面进行交流的主要道路。<br />
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The Silk Road was an ancient overland commercial and trade route connecting Asia, Africa and Europe that started from ancient China. Its initial function was to transport commodities such as silk and porcelain produced in ancient China. Later, it became the main road for economic, political and cultural exchanges between the East and the West.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举， 对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用；郑和本人，也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。 晚清以降，郑和研究获得迅速发展，但不少重要课题仍无定论。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages to the West were an unprecedented feat in the maritime history of the world at the beginning of the 15th century, which played a positive role in the economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. Zheng himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and memory of the world. Since the late Qing Dynasty, the study of Zheng has achieved rapid development, but many important issues are still not conclusive.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、徐光启，上海人，是自李时珍后的明代又一位杰出的科学家。他生于嘉靖41年即公元1562年，父亲是个小商人，家里有一点土地，但日子过得并不宽裕，所以徐光启从小就从事农业生产劳动，这对他后来的成长有很大影响。<br />
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Xu Guangqi, a Native of Shanghai, was another outstanding scientist in the Ming Dynasty after Li Shizhen. He was born in 1562, the year of the 41st emperor jiajing. His father was a merchant and his family had a little land, but his life was not very well-off. Therefore, Xu Guangqi was engaged in agricultural production and labor from an early age, which had a great influence on his later growth.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。<br />
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Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br />
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==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
1.丝绸之路促进了中外经济文化的交流，也密切了汉族与沿途的其他少数民族的关系，促进了我国西北地区的开发。<br />
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The Silk Road has enhanced economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, as well as closer relations between the Han nationality and other minorities along the route, and promoted the development of the northwest China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.21世纪海上丝绸之路的战略合作伙伴并不仅限与东盟，而是增进同沿边国家和地区的交往，串起连通东盟、南亚、西亚、北非、欧洲等各大经济板块的市场链，发展面向南海、太平洋和印度洋的战略合作经济带，以亚欧非经济贸易一体化为发展的长期目标。<br />
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The strategic partners of the Maritime Silk Road in the 21st century are not only limited to ASEAN, but also to promote exchanges with countries and regions along the border, linking the market chains of ASEAN, South Asia, West Asia, North Africa, Europe and other major economic sectors, and developing a strategic cooperative economic belt for the South China Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, with Asia-Europe and Africa economic and trade integration as the long-term goal of development.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.发生在明末清初并且延续到清朝中叶，伴随着耶稣会士来华传教而展开的西方科技传入中国的历史事件，被称为西学东渐第一波。它给中国科技发展带来了全新的可能性。<br />
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The historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China, which took place in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and lasted until the middle of the Qing dynasty, accompanied by the Jesuits' mission to China, is known as the first wave of The Eastward Spread of Western Learning. It brings new possibilities to the development of science and technology in China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然有种种缺陷和弊端，但主要历史作用是积极的，是中国近代史上的一次进步运动。它促进了民族资本主义的发展，延缓了而不是加速了中国半殖民地化的进程。<br />
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Although the Westernization Movement has various defects and drawbacks, its main historical role is positive. As a progressive movement in the modern history of China, it promoted the development of national capitalism and delayed rather than accelerated the process of China's semi-colonization.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。<br />
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The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。<br />
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Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。<br />
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The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。<br />
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Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。<br />
Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.<br />
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Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions was not only an extremely difficult and dangerous diplomatic trip, but also a fruitful scientific investigation. Zhang Qian conducted field investigation and research work on the vast Western Regions.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。<br />
At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.<br />
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At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academia have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。<br />
During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.<br />
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During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach and bring western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while The development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China continues to introduce Western culture, and foreign countries continue to introduce Chinese culture. In this process, China has gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳。它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
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1.The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries. The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk from ancient China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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2.The "maritime Silk Road" is a maritime channel for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. The road is mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it is also called the South China Sea Silk Road. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.<br />
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3.除了传教士之外，许多来华的官员、探险家等也成为传入西学的重要媒介，例如将领戈登对于中国洋务时期军事的影响。主持海关总税务司的赫德对于西方管理制度的引入，以及译介书籍、最早西方军乐队的引入都有影响。<br />
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3.Besides missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media for the introduction of Western learning, such as general Gordon's influence on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Revenue Department of customs, had an influence on the introduction of Western management system, the translation of books and the introduction of the earliest Western military band.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4.洋务运动内容涉及军事、政治、经济、外交等，以“自强”为名，兴办军事工业并围绕军事工业开办其他企业，建立新式武器装备的陆海军。洋务派经营的这些近代企业，是在不改变封建统治为前提下所办企业，具有很强的对外依赖性、封建性和一定程度的垄断性。<br />
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4.The Westernization Movement involved military affairs, politics, economy, diplomacy and so on. In the name of "self-improvement", the Westernization Movement set up military industry and other enterprises around the military industry to establish the army and Navy with new weapons and equipment. These modern enterprises managed by the Westernization clique were established on the premise of not changing the feudal rule, and had strong external dependence, feudalism and a certain degree of monopoly.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
1.2100多年前，中国汉代的张骞两次出使中亚，开启了中国同中亚各国友好交往的大门，开辟出一条横贯东西、连接欧亚的丝绸之路。千百年来，在这条古老的丝绸之路上，各国人民共同谱写出千古传诵的友好篇章。<br />
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The Silk Road first emerged more than 2,100 years ago during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 24) after China's imperial envoy Zhang Qian twice visited Central Asia. It became a bridge between East and West, opening the door to friendly engagement between China and Central Asia. For two millennia, countless tales of everlasting friendship between peoples have been woven into this ancient network.<br />
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2.中国走的是一条和平发展之路。作为拥有五千年文明积淀的东方大国，中国人历来崇尚以和为贵，从来就没有对外扩张的基因。600多年前，郑和率领当时世界上最强大的船队七次远航太平洋和西印度洋，到访30多个国家和地区，没有侵占一寸土地。这对于当年热衷于殖民扩张的西方国家来说，简直是不可思议，但中国确实做到了。<br />
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China follows a path of peaceful development. China is a big country in the East with a five-thousand-year civilization. The Chinese believe in peace. There’s not a single bone of making external expansionism in the body of the Chinese. As early as over six hundred years ago, the Chinese navigator Zheng He led the biggest fleet in the world to the Pacific and west Indian Oceans on seven expeditions, visiting over thirty countries and regions, not taking a single inch of land. That was actually quite inconceivable for those Western powers who were busy making colonial expansion, but the Chinese did that. <br />
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3.在19世纪的西学东渐中，基督新教的教士也开始进入中国，天主教士也随口岸的开放来往各地，他们成立教会学校、医院，并开设印书馆、设立期刊、并译著大量各种书籍。对于西学的传入有很大贡献。<br />
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In the 19th century, Protestant priests also began to enter China, and Catholics also came with the opening of the ports. They established schools and hospitals, printed books, set up periodicals, and translated a large number of books. They contributed greatly to the Eastward Spread of Western learning。<br />
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4.在新航路的开辟，文艺复兴，宗教改革运动，资产阶级革命，产业革命的推动下，至洋务运动发生时，资本主义世界体系已初步完成，人类进入了一个新时期，这也是历史发展的必然。<br />
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Driven by the opening of new routes, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the bourgeois revolution, the industrial revolution, and by the time of the foreign affairs movement, the capitalist world system had been initially completed and mankind had entered a new period, which was a natural development of history.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。<br />
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Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。<br />
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Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。<br />
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After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。<br />
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The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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1.丝绸之路是古代中国联系中亚、西亚、非洲和欧洲的交通要道。19世纪，德国一个地理学家首次使用“丝绸之路”这一术语，一直沿用到今天。期初，它指从中国新疆到中亚的陆地通道。<br />
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The Silk Road was a general name for the ancient strategic transportation channel which started from China and passed through Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and Europe. In the 19th century, when the name of Silk Road was first used by a German geographer, it just included the land road from China’s Xinjiang to Central Asia.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路在时间和空间上经过了长期的发展，在东方各国共同的经营下，形成了东方历史上一道独特而壮丽的风景，至今仍然承载着东方文明的传统。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road has gone through long-term development in time and space. Under the joint management of eastern countries, it has formed a unique and magnificent scenery in the history of the East and still carries the tradition of eastern civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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3.中华文明是古代六大原生文明之一，由于所处的独特地理位置，中华文明的发展一直具有极强的独立性，较少受到其他文明的影响。但随着历史向前发展，中国与世界的联系也更为密切，直到明末清初“西学东渐”，中国人才第一次系统地接触到西方文明。<br />
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The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history progressed, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history moving forward, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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4.洋务运动创办了近代中国由国人自办的最早一批军用和民用近代企业，揭开了中国资本主义生产方式的序幕。<br />
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The Westernization Movement established the first modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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The Westernization Movement established the first bunch of modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
1.今人回顾历史，“张骞通西域”已是一段家喻户晓的美谈，张骞也成为历史记载的第一位出使西域的中原人。<br />
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As we look back on history, the story of Zhang Qian's visit to the Western Regions is a well-known story, and Zhang Qian became the first Chinese to travel to the Western Regions in history.<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路的极盛时期出现在元明两代，明代早期的郑和曾经七次下西洋。这种密切交流一直持续到明代中期。后来，清政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，才让海上丝绸之路失去了夺目的光彩。<br />
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The heyday of the Maritime Silk Road came during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, when Zheng He made seven trips to the West in the early Ming Dynasty. This close exchange continued until the mid-Ming Dynasty. It was only later that the Qing government adopted a policy of seclusion that caused the Maritime Silk Road to lose its dazzling lustre.<br />
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3.西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。<br />
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Although the Eastward Spread of Western Learning can also be used to refer to the introduction of Western ideas into China from ancient times to the present day, it is usually used to refer to the introduction of European and American ideas during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the late Qing and early Republican periods.<br />
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4.洋务运动直接继承了林则徐、魏源的“中学为体、西学为用”的学西方思想，并把这种思想付诸实践，所以洋务运动开始是顺应历史潮流的，只是在后来发展过程中，应该继续变革而不去变革，致使其以违反历史潮流而结束。<br />
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The Westernization Movement directly inherited Lin Zexu's and Wei Yuan's idea of learning from the West, and put this idea into practice, so it was in line with the historical trend at the beginning, but later in the process of development, it should have continued to change but did not do so, resulting in the end of the movement against the historical trend. --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 04:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。<br />
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1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. <br />
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The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。<br />
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2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。<br />
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3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.<br />
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Western learning refers to the historical process of the dissemination of Western academic thought to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things from ancient times to the present time into China, it usually refers to the end. During the early Qing Dynasty and the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republican period, academic ideas were introduced into Europe and the United States.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。<br />
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4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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1.明代中期以后，政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，与此同时，造船技术和航海技术不断发展，海上交通代之而起，使丝绸之路贸易全面走向衰落。<br />
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After the mid-Ming Dynasty, the government adopted a policy of shutting down the country. At the same time, shipbuilding technology and navigation technology continued to develop, and maritime traffic took its place, causing the Silk Road trade to decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After the middle of Ming Dynasty, the government adopted the policy of self-seclusion. At the same time, the shipbuilding technology and navigation technology developed continuously, and the maritime transportation replaced it, which made the Silk Road trade decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和，这位航海史上的先驱，以智慧为舵，扬起和平的风帆，缔造了世界航海业发展的里程碑，厚植了“一带一路”的文化底色与民心基石，书写了中国同其他国家友好交往的千古佳话。<br />
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Zheng He, a pioneer in the history of navigation, took wisdom as the rudder and raised the sail of peace. He created a milestone in the development of the world’s navigation industry. An eternal story of friendly exchanges between countries.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。<br />
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Matteo Ricci spread Western geometry, geography knowledge, and humanistic views to Chinese society, and developed the ethos of scholar-officials in the late Ming Dynasty to learn Western studies.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Matteo Ricci spread the Western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which opened the atmosphere for the literati to learn western learning in the late Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
1、丝绸之路经过亚洲、中东、北非和欧洲。几个世纪以来，丝绸之路是东西方交流的最重要的线路。尽管名字叫丝绸之路，人们进行贸易的商品却不仅仅是丝绸。玄奘和马可·波罗都留下了他们丝绸之路之旅的详尽记录。<br />
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The Silk Road went through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road was the most important line of communication connecting East and West. Although it's called the Silk Road, people traded much more than silk. Both Xuan Zang and Marco Polo left detailed records of their journeys along the Silk Road.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Silk Road passes through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road has been the most important route for exchanges between East and West. Although it is called the Silk Road, the goods people trade are not just silk. Both Xuanzang and Marco Polo kept detailed records of their Silk Road journey. --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、郑和（1317-1435）是中国最有名的探险家之一。1405至1433年间，郑和完成了七次著名的航行。他游览了亚洲和非洲的许多国家。郑和还从他游览的国家带回来很多礼物，像药品，珍珠和珍禽异兽。<br />
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Zheng He (1371-1435) was one of China's most famous explorers. Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As one of China's most famous explorers,Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。 <br />
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The rising modern press deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The modern newspapers and periodicals that emerged in the tide of western learning changed the traditional aesthetic mechanism, and caused a fundamental change in aesthetics from content to form, thus contributing to the modern transformation of Chinese aesthetics.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。 <br />
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Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China. The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of China's modern history and promoted the Westernization movement. The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enlightenment in China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
1. 张骞是丝绸之路的开拓者，被誉为“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”。他将中原文明传播至西域，又从西域诸国引进了汗血马、葡萄、苜蓿、石榴、胡麻等物种到中原，促进了东西方文明的交流。<br />
Zhang Qian is a pioneer of the Silk Road, known as "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world". He spread the civilization of the Central Plains to the western regions, and introduced species such as Ferghana horse, grapes, alfalfa, pomegranates and flax to the Central Plains, which promoted the exchange of eastern and Western civilizations.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 郑和每下西洋都带着一支威武雄壮的仪仗队，每到一国登陆时，前呼后拥，彩旗飘扬，服饰灿烂，刀光剑影，使人望而生畏，从而展示中国的富强。<br />
Every time Zheng He went to the west, he carried a powerful and majestic guard of honor. When he landed in a country, he was surrounded by people, with colorful flags flying, splendid costumes and swords, which made people awe at the sight and showed China's prosperity.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。其虽然亦可以泛指自上古以来一直到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。<br />
The spread of Western learning to the East refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic thoughts to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can generally refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to the present, it usually refers to the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties and the late Qing and early Republic of China.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。<br />
At the initiative of Zeng Guofan, China's first ship was built, the first military academy was established, the first batch of Western books was printed and translated, and the first batch of students was arranged to study in the United States.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
1公元前2世纪，中国就开始开辟通往西域的丝绸之路。汉代使节(envoy)张骞于公元前138年和 119年两次出使西域。<br />
In the 2nd century BC, China began working on the Silk Road leading to the Western Regions. In138 BC and 119 BC, envoy Zhang Qian of the Han Dynasty made a trip to these regions respectively. <br />
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2，西汉时期,中国的商船队就到达了印度和斯里兰卡(Sri Lanka),用中国的丝绸 换取了琉璃(colored glaze)、珍珠等物品。<br />
In the Western Han Dynasty, China's merchant fleets sailed to as far as India and Sri Lanka to trade China's silk for colored glazes, pearls and other products.<br />
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3，唐代是中国历史上对外交流的活跃期。据史料记载，与唐代通使交好的国家多达70多个,那时候的首都长安云集了来自各国的使臣、商人和留学生。这种大交流使中华文化远播世界,也促进了各国文化和物产传入中国。<br />
The Tang Dynasty saw dynamic interactions between China and other countries. According to historical documents, th Tang Dynasty exchanged envoys with over 70 countries, and Chang' an, the capital of Tang, bustled with envoys, merchants and students from other countries. 'Exchanges of this magnitude helped the spread of the Chinese culture to the rest of the world and the introduction of the culture and products from other countries into China.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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1.张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过"丝绸之路"迅速向四周传播。<br />
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Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and The Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。<br />
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Since its opening in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Maritime Silk Road has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.<br />
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3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。<br />
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The influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture brought by the eastward dissemination of Western learning can only be matched by the contention of a hundred schools of thought in Chinese history.<br />
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4.洋务运动推动了近代中国生产力的发展，促使了中国民族资本主义的产生。<br />
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Westernization movement advanced the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:47, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was originally to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and the Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road in Qin and Han Dynasties, it has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.In Chinese history, only contention of a hundred schools of thought can match the great influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture caused by the the eastward spreading of western learning.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.The Westernization Movement promoted the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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1."海上丝绸之路"是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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The "South China Sea Silk Road" is also known as the Maritime Cultural Communication Center of China. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只最多（240多艘）、海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，比欧洲国家航海时间早几十年，是明朝强盛的直接体现。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages to the West were the largest, the largest number of ships (more than 240), the largest number of seafarers and the longest voyages in ancient China. They were decades earlier than those of European countries. They were the direct manifestation of the prosperity of the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。<br />
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During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period. Missionaries not only spread Christian doctrine, but also introduced a lot of science and technology.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动的最根本的指导思想是"自强"、"求富"。 其分类思想就是"师夷制夷" 、"中体西用" 八个字。前四个字"师夷制夷" 表明洋务运动与外国资本主义侵略者的关系，即学习西方的长技用以抵制西方的侵略。<br />
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The most fundamental guiding ideology of Westernization Movement is "self strengthening" and "seeking wealth". Its classification thought is "learning from foreigners, controlling foreigners" and "Chinese style and western use". The first four words "learning from foreigners and controlling foreigners" indicate the relationship between the Westernization Movement and foreign capitalist invaders, that is, learning from Western long-term skills to resist Western aggression.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。<br />
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The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。<br />
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The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，<br />
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The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br />
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The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。<br />
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In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。<br />
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Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the "treasure ship", with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。<br />
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In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of "Western learning", traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。<br />
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The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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丝绸之路是汉唐千余年间中外经济、文化交流的重要通道，为汉朝的强大，乃至整个中华民族的强大奠定了坚实的基础。<br />
Silk Road, a significant path of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries during the Han and Tang Dynasty, which lasted for over thousand years, laying a solid foundation for greatness of the Han Dynasty, and even that of the whole Chinese nation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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回望历史，浩浩荡荡，郑和七下西洋堪称中国“海上丝绸之路”最壮丽的诗篇，也是人类航海史第一个高峰。<br />
Looking back at the history, Zheng He’s seven voyages to the wast was the most magnificent poem of China’s “Maritime Silk Road”, as well as the first peak in the history of human navigation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。<br />
After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of foreigners and "learn from the advanced technologies in the West in order to resist the invasion of the Western powers.”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
Westernization Movement, also known as self-improvement movement, was a self-saving movement that westernization school in the late Qing Dynasty introduced western military equipments, machine production, science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路全长约7000公里，经由这条线路所进行的贸易中，中国的丝绸最具代表性，因此得名“丝绸之路”。<br />
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The total length of the silk road is about 7000 km. Among the trade carried out along this route, China's silk is the most representative, so it is named the "Silk Road". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 在中国，作为国家的政治任务，郑和下西洋对于中国的经济的刺激作用微乎其微。而在西方，东方的商品和航海贸易的利润直接加速了资本主义的原始积累。<br />
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In China, as a national political task, Zheng He's Voyages had little stimulating effect on China's economy. However, in the west, the profits from the eastern commodity and maritime trade directly accelerated the primitive accumulation of capitalism. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 甲午战争以后，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。<br />
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After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, many people with breadth of vision began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared. They learned a lot from the West about natural science and social science, and demanded political reform. During this period, a large amount of Western knowledge was introduced into China, and its influence was very extensive. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 洋务运动前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，采用西方先进生产技术，创办了一批近代军事工业。<br />
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In the early stage of Westernization Movement, the School of Westernization established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement" and adopting advanced western production technology. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early stage of Westernization Movement, under the banner of "self-improvement",the School of Westernization adopted advanced western production technology and established a number of modern military industries.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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1. 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。<br />
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The overland Silk Road originated in the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 years ago). Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the Western Regions to open up an overland route starting from the capital Chang'an (now Xi'an), passing through Gansu and Xinjiang, to Central and West Asia, and connecting Mediterranean countries. <br />
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2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险<br />
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Zheng He's voyage to the West was the largest sea voyage in ancient China with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. It was also the largest series of sea explorations in world history before the voyage of the great geographical discovery in Europe at the end of the 15th century.<br />
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3. 尽管如此，纵观中国近代西学东渐的历史,它的成就是巨大的。虽然经历了由表及里、由浅入深的艰难探索和吸收过程,但毕竟使中国的近代化历程大大加速,客观上加快了清王朝灭亡的脚步,为中国早日推翻一个旧世界,建立一个新世界奠定了基础。但墨守成规、亦步亦趋的学习心理使中国的每一步学习都事倍功半,成效大打折扣.学习中的'一边倒'现象和盲目照搬现象使中国的西学东渐走了许多弯路,学习中的'急功近利'思想也是造成西学东渐成效甚微的重要原因。<br />
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In spite of this, looking at the history of the spread of western learning to the east in modern China, its achievements are huge. Although it has gone through a difficult process of exploration and absorption from the outside to the inside and from the shallow to the deep, it has greatly accelerated China's modernization process, objectively accelerated the pace of the demise of the Qing Dynasty, and laid a foundation for China to overthrow an old world and establish a new world as soon as possible. However, the learning psychology of sticking to the rules and following the same trend makes every step of China's learning get twice the result with half the effort and the effect is greatly reduced. The phenomenon of "one-sided" and blind copying in learning have led to many detours in the spread of western learning to the east in China, and the thought of "eager for quick success and instant benefits" in learning is also an important reason for the little effect of the spread of western learning to the east.<br />
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4. 洋务运动后期，洋务派为解决军事工业资金、燃料、运输等方面的困难，打出“求富”的旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。<br />
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In the late period of the Westernization Movement, in order to solve the difficulties in capital, fuel and transportation of military industry, the Westernization Movement set up a number of civilian industries under the banner of "seeking wealth".<br />
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 03:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。<br />
<br />
Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。<br />
<br />
Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
<br />
The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br />
<br />
In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
1.东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
<br />
The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.<br />
<br />
2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”<br />
<br />
The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. It was also called the "Maritime Ceramic Road" and the "Sea Spice Road".<br />
<br />
3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
<br />
The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times.<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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The Westernization Movement, also known as the self-improvement movement. It was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization School in the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to bring in Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
1. 张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过“丝绸之路”迅速向四周传播。<br />
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Zhang Wei out of the Western Region to carry out the Han Wu Emperor United Moon's strategic intention to fight against the Hunnu, but out of the Western Region after the Hanyi cultural exchanges frequent, the Central Plains civilization through the "Silk Road" spread rapidly around.<br />
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2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。<br />
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Zheng He's Voyage to the West Was the largest, largest and longest maritime voyage in ancient China, and the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the great geographical discovery of Europe at the end of the 15th century.<br />
<br />
3. 在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们（较晚亦有方济各会、多明我会等的教士），在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。<br />
<br />
Missionaries played a very important role in a wave of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing years, when the missionaries, mainly Catholic Jesuits (later franciscans, polyseigns, etc.), introduced Western scientific and technological academic ideas and translated a large number of Western academic books while trying to introduce Catholicism to China.<br />
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4. 甲午战争的结果给中华民族带来空前严重的民族危机，大大加深了中国社会半殖民地化的程度；另一方面则使日本国力更为强大，为其跻身列强奠定了重要基础。<br />
<br />
The result of the Sino-Japanese War brought unprecedented serious national crisis to the Chinese nation, which greatly deepened the degree of semi-colonization of Chinese society, and on the other hand, made Japan stronger and laid an important foundation for its ranks among the great power.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:22, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
1.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线。<br />
<br />
Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which started in the ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which originated from ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。<br />
<br />
Maritime Silk Road is the sea-lane by through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with other countries. This Silk Road is mainly centered with the South China Sea, thus is called the South China Sea Silk Road as well. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Maritime Silk Road is the sea route through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with foreign countries. This Silk Road centered on the South China Sea, thus being called the South China Sea Silk Road as well.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
<br />
Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic process of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty and the modern times.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic course of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty to the modern times.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
<br />
Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, is a self-helping movement carried out by the late Qing dynasty in the 1860s and 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, was a self-helping movement carried out by the westernization group of the late Qing dynasty from the 1860s to 1990s for introducing Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to China to save the Qing government.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
1.张骞到大宛后，向大宛国王说明了自己出使月氏的使命和沿途种种遭遇，希望大宛能派人相送，并表示今后如能返回汉朝，一定奏明汉皇，送他很多财物，重重酬谢。大宛王本来早就风闻东方汉朝的富庶，很想与汉朝通使往来，但苦于匈奴的中梗阻碍，未能实现。汉使的意外到来，使他非常高兴。<br />
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After arriving in Dayuan, Zhang Qian explained to the king of Dawan his mission and experiences along the way, and hoped that Dawan could send men to escort him to the Darouzhi. He also said that if he could return to the Han Dynasty in the future, he would tell the emperor of Han and implore him to send a lot of wealth and rewards to the The the king of Dawan. The King of Dawan had long heard of the wealth of the Han Dynasty and wanted to communicate with Han, but he failed to do so because of the hindrance from the Xiongnu. The unexpected arrival of han Emissary made him very happy.<br />
<br />
2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。<br />
<br />
Zheng He's expeditions were the largest in ancient China, with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. They were also the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the voyages of European geographical discoveries at the end of the 15th century.<br />
<br />
3.此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。<br />
<br />
At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time. Missionaries spread the Christian doctrine, but also spread a lot of science and technology.<br />
<br />
4.为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。<br />
<br />
In order to relieve domestic troubles and foreign invasion, enrich the country and strengthen the army to maintain the rule of Qing dynasty, some people began to learn Western culture and advanced technology, so they were called westernization Group.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。<br />
<br />
1.Zhang Qian made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia, and even to Europe. From then on, the Chinese used this channel to sell silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia. At the same time introduce gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。<br />
<br />
2.Zheng He's voyage to the West was the largest sea voyage in ancient China, the largest number of ships and seafarers, and the longest time. It was also the largest series of sea expeditions in the history of the world before the voyage of the great geographical discovery in Europe at the end of the 15th century.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。其虽然亦可以泛指自上古以来一直到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。<br />
<br />
3.The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also generally refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to the present, it usually refers to the academic thoughts in Europe and the United States during the two periods of the late Ming and early Qing and the late Qing and the early Republic. Incoming.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动的内容之一是创办新式学校，选送留学生出国深造，培养翻译人才、军事人才和科技人才。1862年在北京设立的京师同文馆，就是中国最早的官办新式学校。<br />
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One of the contents of the Westernization Movement was to establish new schools, select and send overseas students to study abroad, and train translators, military talents and scientific and technological talents. The Jingshi Tongwenguan, established in Beijing in 1862, was the earliest government-run new school in China.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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不仅是中国与这些国家进行交流，通过丝路，印度、东南亚、中东、非洲和欧洲之间的贸易交流也迅速活跃起来。<br />
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The Silk Road not only deepen exchanges between China and these countries, but also gave an impetus to trades between India, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Europe.<br />
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郑和下西洋的路线，被称为海上丝绸之路，那是一条向往陌生的海岸线的开放之路。 <br />
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The sailing routes of Zheng He, also known as the Maritime Silk Road, was an open road symbolizing people's aspiration to unfamiliar coastlines.<br />
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明末清初,西方传教士来华传教,掀起了西学东渐的第一次高潮。<br />
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In the late Ming and early Qing dynasty, lots of western missionaries came to China , which brought the first upsurge of the Eastward spread of Western learning.<br />
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洋务运动的主要人物具有典型性和代表性的是张之洞和李鸿章。<br />
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The main figures of the Westernization Movement are Zhang Zhidong and Li Hongzhang.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
1.唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。<br />
<br />
The prosperous Silk Road in the Tang dynasty also further promoted the exchange of thoughts and cultures between the east and the west, and had a lot of positive and far-reaching effects on the later development of both side’s social and national ideologies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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2.欧洲人相继进行全球性海上扩张活动，特别是地理大发现，开启了大航海时代，开辟了世界性海洋贸易新时代。西欧商人的海上扩张，改变了传统海上丝绸之路以和平贸易为基调的特性，商业活动常常伴随着战争硝烟和武装抢劫。<br />
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The European maritime expansion around the world, especially the discovery of the Age of Discovery, ushered in a new era of world trade in the oceans. The maritime expansion of western european merchants, often accompanied by war and armed robbery, changed the traditional sea route of Silk Road of peaceful trade.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展,但许多传统的学术受到西学的冲击。<br />
<br />
The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought to China various new academic achievements in modern times, deeply affecting the development of various academic disciplines. Many subjects which were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China were also developed under this influence. On the contrary many traditional academies have been impacted by Western academies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动是近代教育的开端。要开始洋务运动，兴办洋务就必须要有精通洋务的人才，但是中国传统的科举制教育却远远无法满足洋务运动对人才的需要。因此兴办新式学堂，派遣留学生，就成了洋务运动进行下去的一项重要的举措。<br />
<br />
Westernization Movement was the beginning of modern education. In order to start the Westernization Movement, it is necessary to have people who are proficient in Westernization, but the traditional imperial examination system in China can not meet the needs of the Westernization Movement. Therefore, the establishment of new schools and the dispatch of foreign students has become an important initiative of the Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
==Zubareva, Ekaterina==<br />
<br />
1.Today, Zhang Qian's travels are associated with the major route of transcontinental trade, the Silk Road. His missions opened trade routes between East and West and exposed different products and kingdoms to each other through trade.<br />
<br />
今天，张谦的旅行与跨大陆贸易的主要路线“丝绸之路”相关。 他的任务打开了东西方之间的贸易路线，并通过贸易使不同的产品和王国相互接触。 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.Zheng He generally sought to attain his goals through diplomacy, and his large army awed most would-be enemies into submission. However, a contemporary reported that Zheng He "walked like a tiger" and did not shrink from violence when he considered it necessary to impress foreign peoples with China's military might.<br />
<br />
郑和通常试图通过外交来实现自己的目标，他的大部队敬畏大多数可能成为敌人的敌人。 然而，当代报道说，郑和“走得像老虎一样”，当他认为有必要用中国的军事力量打动外国人民时，并没有因为暴力而退缩。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.With the Jesuits coming to China to preach, the historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China was called the first wave of the introduction of Western learning to the East.<br />
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随着耶稣会士来到中国讲道，西方科学技术传入中国的历史性事件被称为第一波西方知识向东方传入的浪潮。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones into its division of labour.<br />
<br />
到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在将其他主要的新地区纳入其劳动分工中。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118918History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T15:45:04Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
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Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
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The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
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===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
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Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
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Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
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There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
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Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
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The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
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===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
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Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
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===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
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As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
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In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
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The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
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===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
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Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
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Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
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Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
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As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
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Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
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However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
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===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
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It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
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===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
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He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
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On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
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The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
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1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
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2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
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3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
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These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
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===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
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The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
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He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
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Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
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Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
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Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
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Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
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1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
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However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
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Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
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===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
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While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
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On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
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===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
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A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
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An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
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Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
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Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
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In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
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In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
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刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia 英语语言文学==<br />
<center> Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞， 202020080599</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
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A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
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It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
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Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It has also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius had a rich view of literal translation. Tan Zaixi concluded it as : (1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) <br />
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During the Renaissance period, the German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: (1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning: If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
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Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
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Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Translation"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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=====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development=====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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=====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges=====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to a great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the translated text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, foreignizing translation of popular works form the source language country is more likely to be accepted. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture.Therefore, when Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 138)<br />
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With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under this background, Yang Xianyi, a Chinese translator’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. From this perspective, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 138)<br />
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When choosing a work of the source language, the translators should consider the readers’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on different expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture should be viewed form two perspectives: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world. But it may also cause difficulties in spreading the source language culture; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.But foreignizing translation may also cause a lack of national self-confidence. <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of the Czech Republic, the Czech translator John Bowring used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. At the same time, he brought the Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East. But it is far inferior to the former. Some scholars think it is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the situation is changing for China’s international influence is gradually increasing. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history, has had an influence that cannot be ignored by the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has influenced the development of civilization in the world. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 106). <br />
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In order to make the broad Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, "when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language by copying Chinese syntax." (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables the world to understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", foreignizing translation may also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 107)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. All kinds of culture need to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system by imitating that of the Western culture. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was more open in literary. It formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre, are full of colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
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During the Renaissance, humanist writers and scholars express their cultural opinions by reviving ancient Greek and Roman culture. It is the reference and absorption of different cultures that made the Renaissance culture fruitful. And foreignization translation is just a translation strategy that can make cultural reference work better.(Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can develop if it can recognize and respect culural differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, a culture accept the foreignization of other cultures can dvelop better. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization towards the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence on the local culture of the target country. (Wang Kefei 1997, 45)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages on the levels of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood to achieve self-enrichment. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the cultural exchanges between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when used. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for "weaker cultures", foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.<br />
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In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should also be viewed dialectically from different perspectives.<br />
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===References===<br />
Antoine Berman. (1984). ''L’epreuve de l’etranger: culture et traduction dans l’Allemagne romantique.'' Paris: Gallimard.<br />
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Jiang Chunfang. 姜椿芳. (1989).序言. [Preface]. ''当代文学翻译百家谈''.[Hundreds of Contemporary Literature Translation]. 北京：北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press] 3.<br />
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Li Zheng. 李征 & Zhang Chunbo. 张春柏.(2015).“异化”的翻译与民族文化丰富和发展——重读施莱尔马赫的翻译思想. [The Translation of "Foreignization" and the Enrichment and Development of National Culture——Rereading Schleiermacher's Translation Thoughts]. ''学术探索''[Academic Exploration] (06),134-138. <br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
Edward said, a scholar from Bamei. In 1978, he published Orientalism, his masterpiece of postcolonial criticism. Orientalism is not a study of the East itself, but an Orientalism thought existing in the minds of the West. By criticizing Orientalists and deconstructing cultural hegemony, it tries to transcend the basic stand of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural diversity, thus forming a new relationship of dialogue, mutual penetration and symbiosis between the East and the West.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend of thought, postcolonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology and philosophy. It is widely involved in cultural imperialism, colonial discourse and Western representation of eastern culture, reflecting on the historical facts of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity and the relationship among race, class and gender. The core idea of said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the power discourse mechanism implied in Orientalism, to reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, to explore the strategies for disintegrating cultural hegemony, to criticize the colonial discourse and cultural colonialism in Orientalism, cultural imperialism and cultural hegemonism, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thoughts since colonialism in the post colonial era 。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: Criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, reappearance of the oppressed historical memory of the colony, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colony, discussion of the unique identity and situation of women in the third world, attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of collusion between ideological products and colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and text theory, as well as his practice of post colonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial criticism methodology system.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of postcolonial criticism, said established his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on the basis of extensive text interpretation. Orientalism is not only a way of power operation, but also a way of power operation. Said takes the colonial discourse as the research object, that is, from the perspective of how the West views the East, criticizes the Orientalism aesthetics embodied in the western literary works, including the Western superiority, civilization and progress, while the Oriental ignorance, barbarism and backwardness.--User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
According to said, Orientalism exists in three areas of discussion: academia, the ontological understanding of the binary opposition between the East and the west, and the colonial process. Said uses Lacan's psychoanalysis method to study western culture and points out that Orientalism is the embodiment of psychological experience of self and other in western culture. The composition of any person's self-image is based on the coexistence of identity and other. Because of this religious bias, many Oriental Scholars, when one strips away the machine of footnotes and sources, are merely guessing, asserting and groundless judgments, without concrete evidence. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
The most easily accepted meaning is as an academic research discipline. In fact, the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes or studies the East, whether anthropologist, sociologist, historian or linguist, is an Orientalist, whether he or she is facing specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientalists is that the former writes about the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the role is passive acceptance; for the former, it is the power of observation and research. In short, it is the author and the object of writing. Therefore, in the Orientalist's Orientalism Research, the East is shown as a rigid, stagnant and unchanging image symbol, which needs others to examine and even need others to provide their own knowledge. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
Orientalists insist that the west can understand and describe the eastern world not because of its own efforts, but because the West has an effective operating mechanism. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of Orientalists, the East is unable to express itself. It is an absent and silent "other". It is only controlled and expressed by the "certain dominant framework" of the West. The image of the East has never changed, that is, it can never define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is a man-made system of theory and practice". Said believes that the East presented in various Western works is not the true representation of the East as a historical existence, but a cultural concept and discourse practice of Westerners. Therefore, the East is not the East, but the East is "orientalized".--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
<br />
In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive.<br />
Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position.<br />
First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]王宁,薛晓源.全球化与后殖民批评[M].中央编译出版社, 1998.<br />
<br />
[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
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[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
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[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
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[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
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[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
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[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
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[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
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[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
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[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
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[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
<br />
Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
<br />
林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
<br />
黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
<br />
This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
<br />
Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
<br />
It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
<br />
These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
<br />
During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
<br />
4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
<br />
黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
<br />
In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
<br />
However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
<br />
This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
<br />
This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
<br />
In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
<br />
====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
<br />
British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
<br />
A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
<br />
6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
<br />
黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
<br />
In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
<br />
Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
<br />
This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
<br />
The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
<br />
Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
<br />
7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
<br />
林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
<br />
黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
<br />
林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
<br />
黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
<br />
A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
<br />
2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
<br />
*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
<br />
That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
<br />
===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation====<br />
<br />
In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
<br />
When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
<br />
In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation====<br />
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In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
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===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
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The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
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Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
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In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
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Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
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====3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation====<br />
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Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
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To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
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In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
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===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
<br />
This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
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====4.1 Lexical Equivalence====<br />
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(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
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Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
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In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
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(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
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In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
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(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
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So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
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====4.2 Syntactic Equivalence====<br />
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(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
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When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
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(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
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====4.3 Textual Equivalence====<br />
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(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
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Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
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In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
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(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
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However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
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Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
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Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
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(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
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====4.4 Stylistic Equivalence====<br />
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(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
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There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
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(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
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- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
<br />
Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
====5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment====<br />
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In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
<br />
====5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism====<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
====5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation====<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
====5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation====<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
====5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism====<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
<br />
In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
<br />
He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
<br />
By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
<br />
In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
<br />
(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
<br />
1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
<br />
2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
===4. Application of back translation===<br />
<br />
Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
<br />
Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
<br />
The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
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A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
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Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
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John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
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The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
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(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
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===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
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As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
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===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
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For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
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====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
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===3.The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====3.1.Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====3.2.Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====3.3.Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====3.4.Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===4.The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====4.1.Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====4.2.Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4.2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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====4.3.Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
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Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
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Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
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Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
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Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
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Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
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===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
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====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
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=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
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====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
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Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
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By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
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Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
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====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
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Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
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He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
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① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
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Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
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=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
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Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
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The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
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In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
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For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
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For example:<br />
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Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
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Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
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However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
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Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
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If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
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Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
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Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
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Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
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However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
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The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
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===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
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Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
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===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
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Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
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Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
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William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
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Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
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Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
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JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
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Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
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Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
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Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
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Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
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Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
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Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
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Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
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Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
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==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia No.202020080662 英语语言文学==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
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In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
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Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns. No.202020080662<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). 动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析 [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
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Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
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Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
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Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
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Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
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Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
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1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
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Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
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For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
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MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
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Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
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Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 MTI英语口译==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wu Feng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu Feng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
<br />
Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
<br />
Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
<br />
2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. <br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu Feng 2008,319)<br />
<br />
Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
<br />
The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish（Jin Huikang 2005， 218）. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
<br />
The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world.<br />
<br />
==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
<br />
4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
<br />
4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
<br />
4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
<br />
4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)<br />
<br />
Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
<br />
Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
<br />
The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
<br />
4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1.<br />
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2005, 265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2005, 264)<br />
<br />
Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
5.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follows:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)<br />
<br />
Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
<br />
The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. <br />
<br />
Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)<br />
<br />
Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. ''Translation Studies'' [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
<br />
Nida E. A. & Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Nord C. ''Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis'' [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Nord C. ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Reiss K. ''Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation'' [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. ''A Framework for a General Theory of Translating'' [M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. ''Skopos and Commission in Translational Action'' [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
<br />
Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
<br />
Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
<br />
Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
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Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
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Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2005). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong MTI 英语口译 202070080641 ==<br />
<center> Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993）<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
<br />
Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
<br />
“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
<br />
The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
<br />
====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
<br />
====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
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--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of ''Cong Cong'' from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his ''Towards a Science of Translating'', Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
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In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', in which he developed the contents of ''Towards a Science of Translation''. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
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In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
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====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
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=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao 2016，133-134)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao 2016，133-134)<br />
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===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37-38). <br />
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In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37-38). <br />
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Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan 2017，189). <br />
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Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao 2015，104). <br />
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Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37).<br />
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Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)<br />
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Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)<br />
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===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
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====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing 2006，60)<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing 2006，60)<br />
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At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70) <br />
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In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70) <br />
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In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)<br />
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The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)<br />
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====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
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With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
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PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
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One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
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===V. Case Analysis===<br />
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====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
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Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
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Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
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Analysis: <br />
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In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
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Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
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Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
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Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
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Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
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Analysis:<br />
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In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
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Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
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Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
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Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
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Analysis: <br />
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In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
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Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
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Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
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Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
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Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
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In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
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In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
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Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
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Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
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Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
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In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
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Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
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Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
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Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
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In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
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Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
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====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
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Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
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Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
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Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
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Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
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Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
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Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
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Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
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Analysis:<br />
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In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
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Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
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Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
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Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
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In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
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The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
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Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
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Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
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Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
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In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
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Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
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Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
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Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
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In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
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Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
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Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
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Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
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Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
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Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
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Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
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Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
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Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
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Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
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What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
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To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
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===VII. References===<br />
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* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
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* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
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* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10): 104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
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* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆.(2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An Analysis of English Translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04): 60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠, Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
<br />
Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
<br />
“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
<br />
Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
<br />
Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
. <br />
<br />
If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
<br />
Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
<br />
<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
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Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
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Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
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Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
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Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
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Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
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Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
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To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
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=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
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Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
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Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
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Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
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There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
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====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
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=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
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Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
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Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
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Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
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Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
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Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
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=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
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Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
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Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
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Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
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Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
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Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
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The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
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Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11890920201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T15:42:25Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.8 References */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,319)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 323)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.(Zhu Hanming, 2010,320)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
*Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''A. Round Table'''<br />
<br />
If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Square Table'''<br />
<br />
In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
<br />
In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
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[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
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Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
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'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
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1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
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Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''C. Elegance'''<br />
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1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
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1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
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2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
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3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
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4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
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6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
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7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
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2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
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3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
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4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
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5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
<br />
===A.Midea===<br />
<br />
Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
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To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
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Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
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In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
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Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
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In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
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Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
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===B.Haier===<br />
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Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
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Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
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Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
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From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
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In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
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Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
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During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
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Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
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In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
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Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
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leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
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air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
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Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
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3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
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Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
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chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
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Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
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TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
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Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
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Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
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Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
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Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩 202070080609 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
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====Development====<br />
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As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
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direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
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secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
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2. How could people pay online?<br />
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3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
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Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
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东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (the daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
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optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
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intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
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AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
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information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
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===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
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10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
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===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
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9. The Mate 30.<br />
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10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
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Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
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With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
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[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
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Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
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“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
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IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
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Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
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VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
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electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
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8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
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9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
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2. The IoT platform.<br />
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3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
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4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
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5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
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6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
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7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
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8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
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9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
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Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
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Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
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Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
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With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
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===Terms and Expression===<br />
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OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
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BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
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accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
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===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
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2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
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5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
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6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
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7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
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8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
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9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
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2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
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3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
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4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
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5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
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6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
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7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
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9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
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OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
<br />
''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
<br />
1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
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2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
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3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
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4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
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<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
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It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
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====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
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Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
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====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
<br />
But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
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====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
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During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
<br />
But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
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<br />
Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
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Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
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the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
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The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
<br />
2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
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3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
<br />
4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
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3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
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4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
<br />
5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
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Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
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The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
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The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
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Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
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Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
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glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
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Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
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Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
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County 《县志》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
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3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
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4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
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===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
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*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
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*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
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*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
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The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
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Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
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Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
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In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
<br />
Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
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What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
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For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
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The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
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[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
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The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
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Yangtze River 长江<br />
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Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
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4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
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State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
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Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
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Storey n. 层<br />
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Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
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2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
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3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
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4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
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5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
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2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
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3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
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4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
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5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
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====References====<br />
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Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容, 202070080616, MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
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===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
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===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
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Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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''Feng Shui'' (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where ''Yin'' (阴) and ''Yang'' (阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and "a white tiger" on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is "the green dragon", and a stone mountain on the right is "the white tiger". On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing's status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some important military towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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''Feng Shui'' theory 风水学<br />
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Yang House 阳宅<br />
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Yin House 阴宅<br />
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The main mountain 主山<br />
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Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
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man-made canal 人工运河<br />
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Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
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Qinhuai River 秦淮河<br />
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the first line of defense 第一防线<br />
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trench 天堑<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing stands out?<br />
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2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
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3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
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4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
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5. What were Nanjing's natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
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2.Yangzhou.<br />
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3.As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
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4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
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5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
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===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
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The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural sceneries, but also many historical monuments; there are ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interests listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainments are full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area and so on. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people. Moreover, people live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
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Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
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Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
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Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
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Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
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Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
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God of Wealth 财神<br />
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dragon lantern dance 舞龙灯<br />
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Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
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the Huatai Festival 花台会<br />
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black rice 乌饭<br />
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historical interests 名胜古迹<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1.How to describe Nanjing?<br />
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2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
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3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
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4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
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5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
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====Answer====<br />
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1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
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2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
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3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
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4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
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5.Fangshan drum.<br />
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===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
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The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
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[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
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During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
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There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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the first month in the lunar calendar 正月<br />
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glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
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satin silk fabrics 楮练纱帛<br />
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Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
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lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
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the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
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4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
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5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
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6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
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7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
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4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
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5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
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6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
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7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
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[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
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[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
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==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
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Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
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===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
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===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
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===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
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===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
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===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
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Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
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===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
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benevolence 仁<br />
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righteousness 义<br />
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propriety 礼<br />
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wisdom 智<br />
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fidelity 信<br />
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moral code 道德准则<br />
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filial piety 孝道<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
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2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
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3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
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4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
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5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
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2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
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3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
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4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
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5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
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<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
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Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
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Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
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Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
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====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠 202070080647 MTI英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, 1)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. <br />
<br />
The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). ''Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture''. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). ''Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard''. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova. ''A Brief history of folding screens''. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html 2017<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. ''Asian Furniture Online''. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ 2014<br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, ''THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS'', https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold. ''Unfolding the Screen''. https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/ 2008<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). ''Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques''. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
Cooper, Dan (1999). ''Folding Grandeur. Old House Interiors''. 5 (1): 30–36.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:40, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.The origin of giant pandas=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
====2.Appearance features of giant pandas====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
====3.The diet features of giant pandas====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
=====Terms and expressions====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Ailuaractos<br />
<br />
2.It is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow<br />
<br />
3.No,they like humid enviornment.<br />
<br />
4.They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .<br />
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11890420201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T15:40:47Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.8 References */</p>
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'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
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*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
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<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,319)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 323)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.(Zhu Hanming, 2010,320)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
*Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''A. Round Table'''<br />
<br />
If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Square Table'''<br />
<br />
In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
<br />
In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
<br />
Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
<br />
'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
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1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
<br />
Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''C. Elegance'''<br />
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1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
<br />
1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
<br />
2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
<br />
4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
<br />
6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
<br />
7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
<br />
2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
<br />
3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
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4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
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5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
<br />
===A.Midea===<br />
<br />
Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
<br />
To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
<br />
Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
<br />
In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
<br />
Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
<br />
In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
<br />
Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
<br />
In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
<br />
Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
<br />
Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
<br />
Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
<br />
From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩 202070080609 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (the daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
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把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
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我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
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前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
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Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
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Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
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Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
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March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
<br />
''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
<br />
1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
<br />
2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
<br />
3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
<br />
4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
<br />
<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
<br />
It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
<br />
====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
<br />
====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
<br />
Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
<br />
After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
<br />
But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
<br />
====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
<br />
But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
<br />
<br />
Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
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the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
<br />
The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
<br />
2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
<br />
3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
<br />
4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
<br />
3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
<br />
4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
<br />
5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
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Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
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The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
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The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
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glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
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Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
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3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
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*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
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*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
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The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
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Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
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Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
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Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
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====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
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Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
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What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
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For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
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The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
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[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
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The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
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Yangtze River 长江<br />
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Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
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4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
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State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
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Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
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Storey n. 层<br />
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Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
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4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
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5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
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2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
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3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
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4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
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5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容, 202070080616, MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
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===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
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Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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''Feng Shui'' (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where ''Yin'' (阴) and ''Yang'' (阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and "a white tiger" on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is "the green dragon", and a stone mountain on the right is "the white tiger". On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing's status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some important military towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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''Feng Shui'' theory 风水学<br />
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Yang House 阳宅<br />
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Yin House 阴宅<br />
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The main mountain 主山<br />
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Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
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man-made canal 人工运河<br />
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Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
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Qinhuai River 秦淮河<br />
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the first line of defense 第一防线<br />
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trench 天堑<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing stands out?<br />
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2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
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3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
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4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
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5. What were Nanjing's natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
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2.Yangzhou.<br />
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3.As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
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4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
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5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
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===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
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The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural sceneries, but also many historical monuments; there are ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interests listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainments are full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area and so on. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people. Moreover, people live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
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Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
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Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
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Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
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Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
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Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
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God of Wealth 财神<br />
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dragon lantern dance 舞龙灯<br />
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Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
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the Huatai Festival 花台会<br />
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black rice 乌饭<br />
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historical interests 名胜古迹<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How to describe Nanjing?<br />
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2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
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3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
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4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
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5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
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====Answer====<br />
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1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
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2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
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3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
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4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
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5.Fangshan drum.<br />
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===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
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The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
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[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
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During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
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There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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the first month in the lunar calendar 正月<br />
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glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
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satin silk fabrics 楮练纱帛<br />
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Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
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lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
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the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
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4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
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5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
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6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
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7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
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4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
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[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
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[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
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Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
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===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
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===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
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===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
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===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
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Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
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===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
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benevolence 仁<br />
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righteousness 义<br />
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propriety 礼<br />
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wisdom 智<br />
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fidelity 信<br />
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moral code 道德准则<br />
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filial piety 孝道<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
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2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
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3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
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4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
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5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
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2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
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3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
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4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
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5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠 202070080647 MTI英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, 1)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. <br />
<br />
The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova. A Brief history of folding screens. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html 2017<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ 2014<br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold. Unfolding the Screen. https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/ 2008<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
Cooper, Dan (1999). "Folding Grandeur". Old House Interiors. 5 (1): 30–36.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:40, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.The origin of giant pandas=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
====2.Appearance features of giant pandas====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
====3.The diet features of giant pandas====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
=====Terms and expressions====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Ailuaractos<br />
<br />
2.It is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow<br />
<br />
3.No,they like humid enviornment.<br />
<br />
4.They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .<br />
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11890020201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T15:40:08Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.8 References */</p>
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'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
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*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
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<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,319)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 323)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.(Zhu Hanming, 2010,320)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
*Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
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China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
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[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Attendance====<br />
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As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
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Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
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1. the imperial court <br />
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2. local authorities<br />
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3. trade associations and <br />
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4. farmers and workers <br />
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In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
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1. master of the banquet<br />
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2. honored guest(s) <br />
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3. other guests. <br />
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The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''A. Round Table'''<br />
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If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''B. Square Table'''<br />
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In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
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In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
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[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
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Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
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'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
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1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
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Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''C. Elegance'''<br />
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1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
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1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
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2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
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3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
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4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
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6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
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7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
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2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
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3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
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4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
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5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
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===A.Midea===<br />
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Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
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To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
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Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
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In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
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Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
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In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
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Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
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===B.Haier===<br />
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Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
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Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
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Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
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From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
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In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
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Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
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During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
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Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
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===C.Gree===<br />
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Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
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In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
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Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩 202070080609 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (the daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
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===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
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The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
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===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
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Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
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The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
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===C. Contonese===<br />
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Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
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As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
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Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
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Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
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===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
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3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
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2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
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3.The Chu language<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
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* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
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* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
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===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
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March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
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On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
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On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
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The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
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===B. Creation Background===<br />
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March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
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Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
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Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
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After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
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===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
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The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
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The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
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According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
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March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
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===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
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起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
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把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
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中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
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每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
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起来！起来！起来！<br />
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我们万众一心，<br />
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冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
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前进！<br />
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冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
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前进！<br />
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前进！前进、进！<br />
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Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
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Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
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Liberty and true democracy.<br />
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All our world is facing<br />
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The chains of the tyrants.<br />
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Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
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Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
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With the torch of freedom,<br />
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March on!<br />
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With the torch of freedom,<br />
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March on!<br />
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March on! March on, and on!<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
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Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
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EMI 百代唱片<br />
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National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
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National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
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2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
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3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
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4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
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5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
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《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
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百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
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From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
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====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
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====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
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Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
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Java 爪哇<br />
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Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
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Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
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Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
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The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
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Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
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Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
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==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
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3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
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4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
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5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
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3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
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4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
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5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
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Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
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Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
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[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
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[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
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[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 MTI 英语口译==<br />
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===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
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The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
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====Water Margin====<br />
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''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
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With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
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====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
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''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
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====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
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天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
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<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
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1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
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2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
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3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
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4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
<br />
<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
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It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
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====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
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Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
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====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
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But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
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====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
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During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
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But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
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Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
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Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
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the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
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The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
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2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
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3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
<br />
4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
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3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
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4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
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5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
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Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
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The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
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The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
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Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
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Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
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glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
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Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
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Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
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3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
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4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
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Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
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====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
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Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
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For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
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Yangtze River 长江<br />
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Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
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Storey n. 层<br />
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Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
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3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容, 202070080616, MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
''Feng Shui'' (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where ''Yin'' (阴) and ''Yang'' (阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and "a white tiger" on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is "the green dragon", and a stone mountain on the right is "the white tiger". On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing's status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some important military towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
''Feng Shui'' theory 风水学<br />
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Yang House 阳宅<br />
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Yin House 阴宅<br />
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The main mountain 主山<br />
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Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
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man-made canal 人工运河<br />
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Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
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Qinhuai River 秦淮河<br />
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the first line of defense 第一防线<br />
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trench 天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing stands out?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing's natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural sceneries, but also many historical monuments; there are ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interests listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainments are full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area and so on. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people. Moreover, people live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
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Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
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Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
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Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
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Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
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God of Wealth 财神<br />
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dragon lantern dance 舞龙灯<br />
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Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
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the Huatai Festival 花台会<br />
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black rice 乌饭<br />
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historical interests 名胜古迹<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How to describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
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===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar 正月<br />
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glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
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satin silk fabrics 楮练纱帛<br />
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Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
<br />
propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
<br />
fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
<br />
filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠 202070080647 MTI英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, 1)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. <br />
<br />
The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova. A Brief history of folding screens. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html 2017<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ 2014<br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold. Unfolding the Screen. https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/ 2008<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
Cooper, Dan (1999). "Folding Grandeur". Old House Interiors. 5 (1): 30–36.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.The origin of giant pandas=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
====2.Appearance features of giant pandas====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
====3.The diet features of giant pandas====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
=====Terms and expressions====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Ailuaractos<br />
<br />
2.It is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow<br />
<br />
3.No,they like humid enviornment.<br />
<br />
4.They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .<br />
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11887920201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T15:35:54Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.4 Spread */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
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'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,319)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 323)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.(Zhu Hanming, 2010,320)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
*Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
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6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
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7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
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8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
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2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
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3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
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5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
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6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
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7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
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8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
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===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
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China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
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[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Attendance====<br />
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As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
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Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
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1. the imperial court <br />
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2. local authorities<br />
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3. trade associations and <br />
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4. farmers and workers <br />
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In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
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1. master of the banquet<br />
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2. honored guest(s) <br />
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3. other guests. <br />
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The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''A. Round Table'''<br />
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If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''B. Square Table'''<br />
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In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
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In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
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Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
<br />
'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
<br />
1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
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Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''C. Elegance'''<br />
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1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
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1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
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2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
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4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
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6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
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7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
<br />
2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
<br />
3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
<br />
4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
<br />
5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
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===A.Midea===<br />
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Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
<br />
To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
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Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
<br />
In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
<br />
Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
<br />
In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
<br />
Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
<br />
Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
<br />
Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
<br />
From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
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Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
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air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
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3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
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Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
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Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
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TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
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Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
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Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
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Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
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Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
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leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
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Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
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Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
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chain group 链群 <br />
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Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
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TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
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Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
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Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
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Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
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Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
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4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
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5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
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6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
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8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
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10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
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11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
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12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
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2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
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3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
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4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
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5.White home appliances.<br />
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6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
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7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
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8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
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Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
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10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
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(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
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(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
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11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩 202070080609 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
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High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
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2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
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4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
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5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
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4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
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5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (the daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
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====Journey to the West====<br />
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''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
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The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
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====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
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孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
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大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
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康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
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天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
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2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
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3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
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4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
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4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
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2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
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3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
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4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
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4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
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*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
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*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
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*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
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*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
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*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
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--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
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1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
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2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
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3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
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4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
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====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
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It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
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====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
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Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
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====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
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But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
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====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
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During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
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Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
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But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
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Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
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Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
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the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
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The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
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2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
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3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
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4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
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5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
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3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
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4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
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5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
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Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
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Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
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Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
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Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
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Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
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Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
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Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
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Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
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The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
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The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
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Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
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Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
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glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
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Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
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Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
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County 《县志》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
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4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
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5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
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4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
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====Yueyang Tower====<br />
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Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
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====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
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Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
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For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
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The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
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Yangtze River 长江<br />
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Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
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4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
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State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
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Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
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Storey n. 层<br />
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Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容, 202070080616, MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
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===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
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Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
''Feng Shui'' (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where ''Yin'' (阴) and ''Yang'' (阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and "a white tiger" on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is "the green dragon", and a stone mountain on the right is "the white tiger". On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing's status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some important military towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
''Feng Shui'' theory 风水学<br />
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Yang House 阳宅<br />
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Yin House 阴宅<br />
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The main mountain 主山<br />
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Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
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man-made canal 人工运河<br />
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Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
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Qinhuai River 秦淮河<br />
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the first line of defense 第一防线<br />
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trench 天堑<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing stands out?<br />
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2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
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3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
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4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
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5. What were Nanjing's natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
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3.As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural sceneries, but also many historical monuments; there are ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interests listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainments are full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area and so on. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people. Moreover, people live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
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Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
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Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
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Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
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Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
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Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
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God of Wealth 财神<br />
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dragon lantern dance 舞龙灯<br />
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Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
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the Huatai Festival 花台会<br />
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black rice 乌饭<br />
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historical interests 名胜古迹<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How to describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
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===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
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During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar 正月<br />
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glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
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satin silk fabrics 楮练纱帛<br />
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Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
<br />
propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
<br />
fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
<br />
filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠 202070080647 MTI英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, 1)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. <br />
<br />
The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova (2017). A Brief history of folding screens. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques (2014). Asian Furniture Online. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
Cooper, Dan (1999). "Folding Grandeur". Old House Interiors. 5 (1): 30–36.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.The origin of giant pandas=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
====2.Appearance features of giant pandas====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
====3.The diet features of giant pandas====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
=====Terms and expressions====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Ailuaractos<br />
<br />
2.It is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow<br />
<br />
3.No,they like humid enviornment.<br />
<br />
4.They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .<br />
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11887620201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T15:35:20Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.2 History and Technology */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,319)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 323)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.(Zhu Hanming, 2010,320)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
*Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
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The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
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The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
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Shuyuan 书院<br />
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Guozijian 国子监<br />
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Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
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Six Arts 六艺<br />
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Jinshi 进士<br />
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Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
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Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
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2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
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What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
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6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
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2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
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3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
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5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
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6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
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7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
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8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
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===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
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China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
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[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Attendance====<br />
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As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
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Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
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1. the imperial court <br />
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2. local authorities<br />
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3. trade associations and <br />
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4. farmers and workers <br />
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In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
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2. honored guest(s) <br />
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3. other guests. <br />
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The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''A. Round Table'''<br />
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If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''B. Square Table'''<br />
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In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
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In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
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Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
<br />
'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
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1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
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Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''C. Elegance'''<br />
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1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
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1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
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2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
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3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
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4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
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6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
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7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
<br />
2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
<br />
3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
<br />
4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
<br />
5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
<br />
===A.Midea===<br />
<br />
Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
<br />
To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
<br />
Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
<br />
In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
<br />
Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
<br />
In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
<br />
Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
<br />
Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
<br />
Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
<br />
From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩 202070080609 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (the daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
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Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
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Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
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====Water Margin====<br />
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''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
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With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
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====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
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====Journey to the West====<br />
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''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
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The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
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====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
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孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
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大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
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康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
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天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
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2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
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3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
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4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
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4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
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2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
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3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
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4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
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4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
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*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
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*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
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*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
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*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
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*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
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*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
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*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
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--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
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1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
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2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
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3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
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4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
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====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
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It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
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====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
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Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
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====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
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But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
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====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
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During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
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Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
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But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
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Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
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Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
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the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
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The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
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2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
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3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
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4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
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5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
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3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
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4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
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5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
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Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
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Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
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Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
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Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
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Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
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Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
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Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
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Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
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The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
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The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
<br />
Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
<br />
Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
<br />
For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容, 202070080616, MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
''Feng Shui'' (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where ''Yin'' (阴) and ''Yang'' (阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and "a white tiger" on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is "the green dragon", and a stone mountain on the right is "the white tiger". On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing's status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some important military towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
''Feng Shui'' theory 风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
<br />
The main mountain 主山<br />
<br />
Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River 秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense 第一防线<br />
<br />
trench 天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing stands out?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing's natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural sceneries, but also many historical monuments; there are ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interests listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainments are full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area and so on. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people. Moreover, people live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
<br />
Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
<br />
Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
<br />
Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
<br />
dragon lantern dance 舞龙灯<br />
<br />
Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival 花台会<br />
<br />
black rice 乌饭<br />
<br />
historical interests 名胜古迹<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How to describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar 正月<br />
<br />
glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
<br />
satin silk fabrics 楮练纱帛<br />
<br />
Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
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===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
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===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
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===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
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===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
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===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
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Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
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===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
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benevolence 仁<br />
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righteousness 义<br />
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propriety 礼<br />
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wisdom 智<br />
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fidelity 信<br />
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moral code 道德准则<br />
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filial piety 孝道<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
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2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
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3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
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4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
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5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
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2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
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3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
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4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
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5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
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Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
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Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
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Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
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Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
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Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
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====Brief Introduction====<br />
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Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
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In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
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====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
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Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
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After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
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Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
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In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
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In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
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The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
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====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
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Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
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Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
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Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
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2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
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3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
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4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
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5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
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6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
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2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
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3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
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4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
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5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
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6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠 202070080647 MTI英语口译==<br />
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====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
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Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, 1)<br />
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====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
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The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
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Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. <br />
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The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
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They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
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====1.3 Uses====<br />
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Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
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Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
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====1.4 Spread====<br />
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After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
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Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
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By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
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In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
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====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
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Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
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the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
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Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
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====1.6 Questions====<br />
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1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
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2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
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3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
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4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
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5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
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===1.7 Answers===<br />
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1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC). <br />
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2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
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3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
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4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
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5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
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===1.8 References===<br />
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Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
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Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
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Milica Sterjova (2017). A Brief history of folding screens. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
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Emmaantiques (2014). Asian Furniture Online. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
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Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
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David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
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Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
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Cooper, Dan (1999). "Folding Grandeur". Old House Interiors. 5 (1): 30–36.<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.The origin of giant pandas=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
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In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
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The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
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====2.Appearance features of giant pandas====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
====3.The diet features of giant pandas====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
=====Terms and expressions====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Ailuaractos<br />
<br />
2.It is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow<br />
<br />
3.No,they like humid enviornment.<br />
<br />
4.They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .<br />
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11886620201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T15:33:23Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.1 Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,319)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 323)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.(Zhu Hanming, 2010,320)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
*Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''A. Round Table'''<br />
<br />
If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Square Table'''<br />
<br />
In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
<br />
In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
<br />
Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
<br />
'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
<br />
1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
<br />
Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''C. Elegance'''<br />
<br />
1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
<br />
1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
<br />
5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
<br />
2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
<br />
4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
<br />
6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
<br />
7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
<br />
Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
<br />
burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
<br />
“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
<br />
side plate 小菜碟<br />
<br />
napkin 餐巾纸<br />
<br />
handkerchief 手帕<br />
<br />
phlegm 痰<br />
<br />
windpipe 气管<br />
<br />
joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
<br />
ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
<br />
skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
<br />
serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
<br />
2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
<br />
3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
<br />
4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
<br />
5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
<br />
6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
<br />
2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
<br />
3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
<br />
4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
<br />
5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
<br />
6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
<br />
===A.Midea===<br />
<br />
Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
<br />
To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
<br />
Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
<br />
In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
<br />
Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
<br />
In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
<br />
Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
<br />
In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
<br />
Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
<br />
Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
<br />
Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
<br />
From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
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On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
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3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
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Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
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chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
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Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
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TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
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Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
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Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
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Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
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Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
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Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
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TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
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Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
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Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
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Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
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Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
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4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
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8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
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12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
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2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
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3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
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4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
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5.White home appliances.<br />
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6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
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7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
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8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
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Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
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10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
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(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
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(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
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11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
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12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩 202070080609 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
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====Features====<br />
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1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
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2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
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3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
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4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
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5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
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====Merits====<br />
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1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
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2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
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3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
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4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
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5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
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6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
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the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
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integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
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seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
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a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
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viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
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shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
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1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
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2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
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3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
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4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
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5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
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6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
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2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
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3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
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4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
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5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
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6. High-speed rails.<br />
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===B. QR code payment===<br />
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The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
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====Background====<br />
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The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
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====Characteristics====<br />
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At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
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1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
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Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
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jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
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Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
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2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
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3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
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4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
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2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
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3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
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4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
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===C. Shared bikes===<br />
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As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
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====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
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By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
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1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
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2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
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3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
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====Development====<br />
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China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
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free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
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last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
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the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
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2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
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3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
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4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
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2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
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3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
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4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
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===D. Online shopping===<br />
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Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
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====Definition====<br />
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Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
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====Development====<br />
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As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
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With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
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With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
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direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
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secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
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2. How could people pay online?<br />
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3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
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2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
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3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
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Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Since the top executive (the daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
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For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
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===Terms and Expression===<br />
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Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
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optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
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intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
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AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
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information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
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===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
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4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
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5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
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6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
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7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
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8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
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9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
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10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
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===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
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2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
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3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
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5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
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6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
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7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
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8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
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②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
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9. The Mate 30.<br />
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10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
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With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
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VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
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electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 MTI 英语口译==<br />
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===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
<br />
''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
<br />
1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
<br />
2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
<br />
3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
<br />
4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
<br />
<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
<br />
It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
<br />
====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
<br />
====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
<br />
But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
<br />
====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
<br />
But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
<br />
<br />
Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
<br />
Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
<br />
the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
<br />
Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
<br />
The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
<br />
2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
<br />
3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
<br />
4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
<br />
2.Realgar wine<br />
<br />
3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
<br />
4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
<br />
5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
<br />
Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
<br />
Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
<br />
For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容, 202070080616, MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
''Feng Shui'' (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where ''Yin'' (阴) and ''Yang'' (阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and "a white tiger" on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is "the green dragon", and a stone mountain on the right is "the white tiger". On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing's status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some important military towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
''Feng Shui'' theory 风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
<br />
The main mountain 主山<br />
<br />
Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River 秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense 第一防线<br />
<br />
trench 天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing stands out?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing's natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural sceneries, but also many historical monuments; there are ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interests listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainments are full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area and so on. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people. Moreover, people live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
<br />
Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
<br />
Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
<br />
Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
<br />
dragon lantern dance 舞龙灯<br />
<br />
Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival 花台会<br />
<br />
black rice 乌饭<br />
<br />
historical interests 名胜古迹<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How to describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar 正月<br />
<br />
glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
<br />
satin silk fabrics 楮练纱帛<br />
<br />
Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
<br />
propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
<br />
fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
<br />
filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠 202070080647 MTI英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, 1)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website,2)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova (2017). A Brief history of folding screens. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques (2014). Asian Furniture Online. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
Cooper, Dan (1999). "Folding Grandeur". Old House Interiors. 5 (1): 30–36.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.The origin of giant pandas=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
====2.Appearance features of giant pandas====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
====3.The diet features of giant pandas====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
=====Terms and expressions====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Ailuaractos<br />
<br />
2.It is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow<br />
<br />
3.No,they like humid enviornment.<br />
<br />
4.They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .<br />
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118419History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T12:47:44Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling MTI口译 */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
<br />
Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
<br />
However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
<br />
It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
<br />
He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
<br />
The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
<br />
1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
<br />
2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
<br />
3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
<br />
4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
<br />
These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
<br />
===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
<br />
The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
<br />
He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
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Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
<br />
Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
<br />
Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
<br />
Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
<br />
Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
<br />
1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
<br />
2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
<br />
4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
<br />
Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
<br />
Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
<br />
===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
<br />
While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
<br />
A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
<br />
An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
<br />
Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
<br />
Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
<br />
Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
<br />
In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
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In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
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Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
<br />
A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
<br />
It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
<br />
Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It has also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
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Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
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Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, foreignizing translation of popular works form the source language country is more likely to be accepted. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture.Therefore, when Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. <br />
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With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under this background, Yang Xianyi, a Chinese translator’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. From this perspective, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When choosing a work of the source language, the translators should consider the readers’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on different expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture should be viewed form two perspectives: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world. But it may also cause difficulties in spreading the source language culture; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.But foreignizing translation may also cause a lack of national self-confidence. <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of the Czech Republic, the Czech translator John Bowring used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. At the same time, he brought the Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East. But it is far inferior to the former. Some scholars think it is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the situation is changing for China’s international influence is gradually increasing. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history, has had an influence that cannot be ignored by the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has influenced the development of civilization in the world. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 106). <br />
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In order to make the broad Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, "when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language by copying Chinese syntax." (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables the world to understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", foreignizing translation may also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 107)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
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However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
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In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
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====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
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The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
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[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
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[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
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[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
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[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
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[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
<br />
Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
<br />
林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
<br />
黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
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Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
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That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
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This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
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===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
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'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
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When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
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In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
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'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
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===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
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Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
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In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
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Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
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'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
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To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
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In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
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===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
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This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
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'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
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(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
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Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
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In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
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(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
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In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
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(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
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So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
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'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
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(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
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When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
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(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
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'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
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(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
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Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
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In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
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(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
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However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
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Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
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Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
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(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
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'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
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(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
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There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
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(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
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- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
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===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
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Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
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'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
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In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
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'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
<br />
In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
<br />
He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
<br />
By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
<br />
In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
<br />
(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
<br />
1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
<br />
2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
===4. Application of back translation===<br />
<br />
Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
<br />
Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
<br />
The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
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A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
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Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
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John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
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The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
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(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
<br />
As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
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Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
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Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
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Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
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Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
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===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
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====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
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=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
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====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
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Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
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By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
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Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
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====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
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Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
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He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
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① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
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Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
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=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
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Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
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The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
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In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
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For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
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For example:<br />
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Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
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Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
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However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
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Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
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If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
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Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
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Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
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Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
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However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
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The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
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===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
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Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
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===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
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Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
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Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
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William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
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Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
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Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
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JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
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Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
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Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
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Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
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Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
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Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
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Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
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Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
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Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
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==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
<br />
In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
<br />
Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
<br />
Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
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MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
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Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
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Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 MTI英语口译==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wu Feng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu Feng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
<br />
Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
<br />
Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
<br />
2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. <br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu Feng 2008,319)<br />
<br />
Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
<br />
The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish（Jin Huikang 2005， 218）. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
<br />
The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world.<br />
<br />
==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
<br />
4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
<br />
4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
<br />
4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
<br />
4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)<br />
<br />
Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
<br />
Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
<br />
The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
<br />
4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1.<br />
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2005, 265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2005, 264)<br />
<br />
Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
5.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follows:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)<br />
<br />
Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
<br />
The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. <br />
<br />
Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)<br />
<br />
Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
<br />
Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
<br />
Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
<br />
Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
<br />
Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
<br />
Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
<br />
Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
<br />
Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
<br />
Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2005). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong MTI 英语口译 202070080641 ==<br />
<center> Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993）<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
<br />
Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
<br />
“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
<br />
The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
<br />
====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
<br />
====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
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--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
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In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
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In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
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====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
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=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
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===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
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Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
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Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
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Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
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Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
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Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
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===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
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====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
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At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
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In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
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In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
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The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
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====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
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With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
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PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
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One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
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===V. Case Analysis===<br />
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====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
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Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
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Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
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Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
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Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
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Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
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Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
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Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
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Analysis:<br />
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In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
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Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
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Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
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Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
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Analysis: <br />
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In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
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Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
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Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
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Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
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Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
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In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
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In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
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Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
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Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
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Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
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In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
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Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
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Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
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Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
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Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
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====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
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Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
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Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
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Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
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Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
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Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
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Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
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Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
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Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
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Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
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Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
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In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
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The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
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Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
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Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
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Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
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Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
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Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
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Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
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Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
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Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
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Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
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Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
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Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
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Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
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Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
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Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
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To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
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* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
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* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
<br />
Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
<br />
“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
<br />
Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
<br />
Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
. <br />
<br />
If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
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<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
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<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
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Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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<br />
Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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<br />
<br />
Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
<br />
<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
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Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
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Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
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Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
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Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
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Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
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Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
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To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
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=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
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Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
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Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
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Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
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There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
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====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
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=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
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Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
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Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
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Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
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Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
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Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
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=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
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Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
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Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
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Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
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Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
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Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
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The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
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Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11841620201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:46:29Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译 */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''A. Round Table'''<br />
<br />
If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Square Table'''<br />
<br />
In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
<br />
In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
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[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
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Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
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'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
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1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
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Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''C. Elegance'''<br />
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1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
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1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
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2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
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3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
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4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
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6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
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7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
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2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
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3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
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4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
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5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
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===A.Midea===<br />
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Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
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To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
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Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
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Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
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Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
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In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
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Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
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===B.Haier===<br />
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Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
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Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
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Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
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From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
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In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
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Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
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During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
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Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
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===C.Gree===<br />
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Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
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In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
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Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
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On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
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On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
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In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
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Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
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Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
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Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
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leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
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air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
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Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
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3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
<br />
''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
<br />
1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
<br />
2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
<br />
3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
<br />
4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
<br />
<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
<br />
It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
<br />
====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
<br />
====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
<br />
Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
<br />
After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
<br />
But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
<br />
====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
<br />
But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
<br />
<br />
Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
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the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
<br />
The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
<br />
2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
<br />
3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
<br />
4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
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3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
<br />
4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
<br />
5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
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Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
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The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
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The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
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glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
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Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
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3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
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*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
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*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
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The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
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Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
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Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
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Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
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====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
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Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
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What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
<br />
For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
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The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
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[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
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===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
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Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
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The main mountain主山<br />
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Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense第一防线<br />
<br />
trench天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
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Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
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Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
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Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
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Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
<br />
dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
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Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
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black rice 乌饭<br />
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historical interest名胜古迹<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
<br />
glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
<br />
satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
<br />
Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
<br />
propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
<br />
fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
<br />
filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠 202070080647 MTI英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website,2)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova (2017). A Brief history of folding screens. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques (2014). Asian Furniture Online. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
Cooper, Dan (1999). "Folding Grandeur". Old House Interiors. 5 (1): 30–36.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
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Pleistocene 更新世<br />
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rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
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cellulose 纤维素 <br />
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burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
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2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
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3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
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4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
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[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.Representative figures====<br />
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Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
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After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
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Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
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Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
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Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
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In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
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It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====References====<br />
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*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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1.Legalism法家 <br />
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2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
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3.the way of king王道 <br />
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4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
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5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
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6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
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7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
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8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
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9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
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2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
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4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
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6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
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7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
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2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
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3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
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4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
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5.Yes.<br />
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6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
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7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11841220201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:45:25Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.7 Answers */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''A. Round Table'''<br />
<br />
If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Square Table'''<br />
<br />
In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
<br />
In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
<br />
Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
<br />
'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
<br />
1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
<br />
Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''C. Elegance'''<br />
<br />
1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
<br />
1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
<br />
5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
<br />
2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
<br />
4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
<br />
6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
<br />
7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
<br />
Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
<br />
burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
<br />
“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
<br />
side plate 小菜碟<br />
<br />
napkin 餐巾纸<br />
<br />
handkerchief 手帕<br />
<br />
phlegm 痰<br />
<br />
windpipe 气管<br />
<br />
joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
<br />
ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
<br />
skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
<br />
serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
<br />
2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
<br />
3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
<br />
4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
<br />
5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
<br />
6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
<br />
2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
<br />
3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
<br />
4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
<br />
5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
<br />
6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
<br />
===A.Midea===<br />
<br />
Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
<br />
To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
<br />
Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
<br />
Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
<br />
Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
<br />
In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
<br />
Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
<br />
In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
<br />
Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
<br />
Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
<br />
Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
<br />
From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
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===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
<br />
''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
<br />
1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
<br />
2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
<br />
3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
<br />
4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
<br />
<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
<br />
It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
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====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
<br />
During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
<br />
====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
<br />
Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
<br />
But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
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====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
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But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
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Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
<br />
Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
<br />
the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
<br />
The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
<br />
2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
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3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
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4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
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3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
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4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
<br />
5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
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The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
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The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
<br />
Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
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5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
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3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
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4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
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*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
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The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
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Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
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====Yueyang Tower====<br />
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Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
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In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
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The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
<br />
Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
<br />
For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
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Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
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Yang House 阳宅<br />
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Yin House 阴宅<br />
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The main mountain主山<br />
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Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
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man-made canal 人工运河<br />
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Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
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Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
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the first line of defense第一防线<br />
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trench天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
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4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
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3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
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The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
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Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
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Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
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Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
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Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
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Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
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God of Wealth 财神<br />
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dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
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Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
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the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
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black rice 乌饭<br />
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historical interest名胜古迹<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
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2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
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5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
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===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
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The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
<br />
glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
<br />
satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
<br />
Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
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<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
<br />
propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
<br />
fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
<br />
filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website,2)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova (2017). A Brief history of folding screens. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques (2014). Asian Furniture Online. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
Cooper, Dan (1999). "Folding Grandeur". Old House Interiors. 5 (1): 30–36.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11840120201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:37:17Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.8 References */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''A. Round Table'''<br />
<br />
If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Square Table'''<br />
<br />
In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
<br />
In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
<br />
Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
<br />
'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
<br />
1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
<br />
Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''C. Elegance'''<br />
<br />
1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
<br />
1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
<br />
5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
<br />
2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
<br />
4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
<br />
6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
<br />
7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
<br />
Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
<br />
burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
<br />
“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
<br />
side plate 小菜碟<br />
<br />
napkin 餐巾纸<br />
<br />
handkerchief 手帕<br />
<br />
phlegm 痰<br />
<br />
windpipe 气管<br />
<br />
joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
<br />
ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
<br />
skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
<br />
serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
<br />
2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
<br />
3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
<br />
4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
<br />
5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
<br />
6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
<br />
2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
<br />
3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
<br />
4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
<br />
5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
<br />
6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
<br />
===A.Midea===<br />
<br />
Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
<br />
To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
<br />
Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
<br />
Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
<br />
Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
<br />
In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
<br />
Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
<br />
In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
<br />
Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
<br />
Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
<br />
Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
<br />
From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
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===B Establishment process===<br />
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===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
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On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
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===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
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On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
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===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
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The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
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Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
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===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
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=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
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五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
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中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
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全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
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《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
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《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
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《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
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=== Questions ===<br />
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1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
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2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
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3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
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4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
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5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
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=== Answers ===<br />
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1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
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2. On September 27, 1949<br />
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3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
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4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
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5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
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[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
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[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
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[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
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[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
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[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
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[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
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Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
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===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
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High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
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====Features====<br />
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1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
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2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
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3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
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4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
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5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
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====Merits====<br />
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1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
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2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
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3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
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4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
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5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
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6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
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the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
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integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
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seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
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a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
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viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
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shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
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1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
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2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
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3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
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4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
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5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
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6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
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2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
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3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
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4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
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5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
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6. High-speed rails.<br />
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===B. QR code payment===<br />
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The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
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====Background====<br />
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The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
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====Characteristics====<br />
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At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
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1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
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Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
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jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
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Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
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1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
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2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
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3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
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4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
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2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
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3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
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4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
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===C. Shared bikes===<br />
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As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
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====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
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By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
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1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
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2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
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3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
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====Development====<br />
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China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
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free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
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last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
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the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
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1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
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2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
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3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
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4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
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2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
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3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
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4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
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===D. Online shopping===<br />
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Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
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====Definition====<br />
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Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
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====Development====<br />
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As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
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With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
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With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
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direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
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secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
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1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
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2. How could people pay online?<br />
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3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
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2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
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3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
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Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
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Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
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东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
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Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
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For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
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===Terms and Expression===<br />
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Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
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optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
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intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
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AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
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information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
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===Questions:===<br />
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1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
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2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
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3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
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4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
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5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
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6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
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7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
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8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
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9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
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10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
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===Answers:===<br />
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1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
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2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
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3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
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4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
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5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
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6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
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7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
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8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
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②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
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9. The Mate 30.<br />
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10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
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Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
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===B. Xiaomi===<br />
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Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
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With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
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[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
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“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
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Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
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“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
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===Terms and Expression===<br />
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IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
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Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
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VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
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electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
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===Questions:===<br />
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1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
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2.What is the core of this company？<br />
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3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
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4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
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5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
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6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
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7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
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8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
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9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
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2. The IoT platform.<br />
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3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
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4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
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5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
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6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
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7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
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8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
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9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
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Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
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Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
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===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
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Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
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Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
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At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
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With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
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===Terms and Expression===<br />
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OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
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BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
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accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
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===Questions:===<br />
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1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
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2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
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3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
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4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
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5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
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6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
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7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
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8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
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9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
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--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
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2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
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3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
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4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
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5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
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6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
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7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
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8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
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9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
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vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
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OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
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==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
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===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
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The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
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China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
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===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
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Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
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The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
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===C. Contonese===<br />
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Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
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As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
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Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
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Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
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===Question===<br />
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1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
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2.What are they?<br />
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3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
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2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
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3.The Chu language<br />
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===References===<br />
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* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
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* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
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* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
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===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
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March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
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On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
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On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
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The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
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===B. Creation Background===<br />
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March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
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Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
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Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
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After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
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===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
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The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
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The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
<br />
''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
<br />
1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
<br />
2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
<br />
3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
<br />
4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
<br />
<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
<br />
It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
<br />
====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
<br />
During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
<br />
====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
<br />
Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
<br />
After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
<br />
But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
<br />
====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
<br />
But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
<br />
<br />
Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
<br />
Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
<br />
the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
<br />
Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
<br />
The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
<br />
2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
<br />
3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
<br />
4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
<br />
2.Realgar wine<br />
<br />
3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
<br />
4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
<br />
5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
<br />
Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
<br />
Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
<br />
For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
<br />
The main mountain主山<br />
<br />
Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense第一防线<br />
<br />
trench天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
<br />
Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
<br />
Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
<br />
Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
<br />
dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
<br />
Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
<br />
black rice 乌饭<br />
<br />
historical interest名胜古迹<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
<br />
glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
<br />
satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
<br />
Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
<br />
propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
<br />
fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
<br />
filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website,2)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova (2017). A Brief history of folding screens. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques (2014). Asian Furniture Online. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
Cooper, Dan (1999). "Folding Grandeur". Old House Interiors. 5 (1): 30–36.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11839820201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:35:58Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.3 Uses */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''A. Round Table'''<br />
<br />
If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Square Table'''<br />
<br />
In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
<br />
In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
<br />
Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
<br />
'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
<br />
1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
<br />
Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''C. Elegance'''<br />
<br />
1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
<br />
1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
<br />
5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
<br />
2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
<br />
4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
<br />
6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
<br />
7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
<br />
Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
<br />
burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
<br />
“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
<br />
side plate 小菜碟<br />
<br />
napkin 餐巾纸<br />
<br />
handkerchief 手帕<br />
<br />
phlegm 痰<br />
<br />
windpipe 气管<br />
<br />
joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
<br />
ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
<br />
skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
<br />
serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
<br />
2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
<br />
3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
<br />
4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
<br />
5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
<br />
6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
<br />
2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
<br />
3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
<br />
4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
<br />
5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
<br />
6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
<br />
===A.Midea===<br />
<br />
Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
<br />
To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
<br />
Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
<br />
Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
<br />
Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
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In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
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Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
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Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
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Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
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From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
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In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
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Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
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During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
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Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
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===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
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In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
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Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
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On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
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On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
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In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
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Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
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Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
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Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
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leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
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air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
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Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
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3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
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Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
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chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
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Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
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TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
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Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
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Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
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Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
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Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
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HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
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Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
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Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
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Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
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leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
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Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
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air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
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Tmall 天猫<br />
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Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
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Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
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3Q report 三季报 <br />
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IoT 物联网 <br />
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Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
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Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
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chain group 链群 <br />
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Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
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Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
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TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
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Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
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Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
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Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
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Created in China 中国创造 <br />
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General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
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Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
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COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
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Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
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2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
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3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
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4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
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5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
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6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
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7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
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8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
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9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
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10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
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11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
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12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
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2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
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3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
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4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
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5.White home appliances.<br />
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6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
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7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
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8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
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Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
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10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
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(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
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(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
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11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
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12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
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===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
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On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
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===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
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On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
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===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
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====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
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Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
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Java 爪哇<br />
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Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
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Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
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Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
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The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
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Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
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Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
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==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
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2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
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3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
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4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
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5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
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2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
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3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
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4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
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5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
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Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
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Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
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[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
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[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
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[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
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===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
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The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
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====Water Margin====<br />
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''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
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With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
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====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
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====Journey to the West====<br />
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''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
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The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
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====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
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孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
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大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
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康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
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天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
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2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
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3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
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4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
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4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
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4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
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4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
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*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
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*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
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*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
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*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
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*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
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*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
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*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
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--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
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1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
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2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
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3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
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4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
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====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
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It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
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====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
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Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
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====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
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But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
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====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
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During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
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Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
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But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
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Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
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Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
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the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
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The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
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2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
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3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
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4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
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3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
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4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
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5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
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Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
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Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
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Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
<br />
Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
<br />
Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
<br />
For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
<br />
The main mountain主山<br />
<br />
Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense第一防线<br />
<br />
trench天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
<br />
Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
<br />
Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
<br />
Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
<br />
dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
<br />
Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
<br />
black rice 乌饭<br />
<br />
historical interest名胜古迹<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
<br />
glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
<br />
satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
<br />
Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
<br />
propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
<br />
fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
<br />
filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website,2)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11836720201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:25:00Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.2 History and Technology */</p>
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<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
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'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
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*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
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Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
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With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
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E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
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E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
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However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
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The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
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The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
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战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
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2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Taoism 道教<br />
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cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
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plank 厚木板<br />
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Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
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Zen 禅宗<br />
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Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
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Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
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practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
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monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
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Loyalty 忠<br />
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Filial Piety 孝<br />
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Benevolence 仁<br />
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Righteousness 义<br />
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poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
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Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
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Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
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Zu Xue 族学<br />
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archery 射<br />
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chariot- riding 御<br />
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calligraphy 书<br />
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computation 数<br />
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state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
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The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
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The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
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The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
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Four Books 四书<br />
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Shuyuan 书院<br />
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Guozijian 国子监<br />
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Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
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Six Arts 六艺<br />
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Jinshi 进士<br />
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Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
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Bangyan 榜眼<br />
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Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
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2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
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3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
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4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
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What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
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6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
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7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
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8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
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2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
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3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
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4.Noblemen’s children<br />
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5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
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6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
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7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
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8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
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===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
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China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
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[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Attendance====<br />
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As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
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Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
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1. the imperial court <br />
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2. local authorities<br />
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3. trade associations and <br />
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4. farmers and workers <br />
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In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
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1. master of the banquet<br />
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2. honored guest(s) <br />
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3. other guests. <br />
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The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''A. Round Table'''<br />
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If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''B. Square Table'''<br />
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In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
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In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
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[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
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Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
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'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
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1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
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Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''C. Elegance'''<br />
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1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
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1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
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2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
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3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
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4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
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6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
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7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
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2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
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3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
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4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
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5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
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===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
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===A.Midea===<br />
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Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
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To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
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Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
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Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
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Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
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In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
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Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
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===B.Haier===<br />
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Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
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Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
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Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
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From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
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1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
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2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
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3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
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4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
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5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
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====Merits====<br />
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1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
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2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
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3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
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4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
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5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
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6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
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the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
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integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
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seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
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a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
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viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
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shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
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1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
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2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
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3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
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4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
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5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
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6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
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2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
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3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
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4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
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5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
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6. High-speed rails.<br />
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===B. QR code payment===<br />
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The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
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====Background====<br />
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The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
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====Characteristics====<br />
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At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
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1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
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Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
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jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
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Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
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1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
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2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
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3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
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4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
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2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
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3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
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4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
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===C. Shared bikes===<br />
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As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
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====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
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By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
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1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
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2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
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3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
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====Development====<br />
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China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
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free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
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last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
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the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
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2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
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3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
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4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
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2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
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3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
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4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
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===D. Online shopping===<br />
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Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
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====Definition====<br />
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Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
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====Development====<br />
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As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
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With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
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With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
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direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
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secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
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1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
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2. How could people pay online?<br />
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3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
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2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
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3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
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===References===<br />
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中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
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Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
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东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
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===A.Huawei===<br />
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Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
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Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
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"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
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[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
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For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
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===Terms and Expression===<br />
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Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
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optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
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intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
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AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
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information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
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===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
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2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
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3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
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4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
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5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
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6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
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7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
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8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
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9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
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10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
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===Answers:===<br />
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1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
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2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
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3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
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4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
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5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
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6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
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7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
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8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
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②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
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9. The Mate 30.<br />
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10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
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Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
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Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
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With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
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[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
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“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
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Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
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IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
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Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
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VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
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electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
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===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
<br />
''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
<br />
1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
<br />
2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
<br />
3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
<br />
4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
<br />
<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
<br />
It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
<br />
====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
<br />
====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
<br />
But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
<br />
====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
<br />
But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
<br />
<br />
Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
<br />
Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
<br />
the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
<br />
Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
<br />
The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
<br />
2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
<br />
3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
<br />
4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
<br />
2.Realgar wine<br />
<br />
3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
<br />
4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
<br />
5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
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Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
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Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
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County 《县志》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
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4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
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Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
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Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
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For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
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The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
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The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
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Yangtze River 长江<br />
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Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
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4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
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State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
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Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
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Storey n. 层<br />
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Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
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3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
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Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
<br />
The main mountain主山<br />
<br />
Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense第一防线<br />
<br />
trench天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
<br />
Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
<br />
Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
<br />
Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
<br />
dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
<br />
Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
<br />
black rice 乌饭<br />
<br />
historical interest名胜古迹<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
<br />
glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
<br />
satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
<br />
Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
<br />
propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
<br />
fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
<br />
filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website,2)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11836320201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:24:00Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.2 History and Technology */</p>
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<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
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'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
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*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
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<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
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===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
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China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
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[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Attendance====<br />
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As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
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Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
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1. the imperial court <br />
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2. local authorities<br />
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3. trade associations and <br />
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4. farmers and workers <br />
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In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
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1. master of the banquet<br />
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2. honored guest(s) <br />
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3. other guests. <br />
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The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''A. Round Table'''<br />
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If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''B. Square Table'''<br />
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In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
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In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
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[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
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Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
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'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
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1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
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Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''C. Elegance'''<br />
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1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
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1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
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2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
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3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
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4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
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6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
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7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
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2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
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3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
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4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
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5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
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===A.Midea===<br />
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Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
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To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
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Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
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Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
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Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
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In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
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Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
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Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
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Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
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From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
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===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
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The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
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====Water Margin====<br />
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''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
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With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
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====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
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====Journey to the West====<br />
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''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
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The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
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====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
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孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
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大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
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康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
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天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
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2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
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3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
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4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
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4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
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2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
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3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
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4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
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4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
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*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
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*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
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*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
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*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
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*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
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*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
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*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
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--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
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1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
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2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
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3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
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4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
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====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
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It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
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====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
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Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
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====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
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But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
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====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
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During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
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Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
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But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
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Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
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Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
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the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
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The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
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2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
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3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
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4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
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5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
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3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
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4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
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5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
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Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
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Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
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Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
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Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
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Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
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Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
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Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
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Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
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The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
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The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
<br />
Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
<br />
Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
<br />
For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
<br />
The main mountain主山<br />
<br />
Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense第一防线<br />
<br />
trench天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
<br />
Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
<br />
Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
<br />
Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
<br />
dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
<br />
Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
<br />
black rice 乌饭<br />
<br />
historical interest名胜古迹<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
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glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
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satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
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Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
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lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
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the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
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4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
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5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
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6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
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7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
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[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
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<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
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Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
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===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
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===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
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===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
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===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
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===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
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Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
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benevolence 仁<br />
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righteousness 义<br />
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propriety 礼<br />
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wisdom 智<br />
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fidelity 信<br />
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moral code 道德准则<br />
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filial piety 孝道<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
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2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
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3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
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4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
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5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
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3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
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4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
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Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
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Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
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Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
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Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
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2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
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3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
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4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
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5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
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====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
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Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
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====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
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The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are<br />
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou<br />
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200<br />
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated<br />
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, website, 2)<br />
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====1.3 Uses====<br />
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Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
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Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.<br />
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====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
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===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
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Pleistocene 更新世<br />
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rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
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burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11834120201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:17:51Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.4 Spread */</p>
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'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
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*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
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<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''A. Round Table'''<br />
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If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''B. Square Table'''<br />
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In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
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In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
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[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
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Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
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'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
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1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
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Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''C. Elegance'''<br />
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1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
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1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
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2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
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3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
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4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
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6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
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7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
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2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
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3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
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4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
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5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
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===A.Midea===<br />
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Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
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To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
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Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
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Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
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Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
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In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
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Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
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Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
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Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
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Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
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From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
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In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
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Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
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During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
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Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
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===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
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Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
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On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
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On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
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The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
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China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
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===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
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Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
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The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
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===C. Contonese===<br />
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Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
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As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
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Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
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Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
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===Question===<br />
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1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
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2.What are they?<br />
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3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
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2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
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3.The Chu language<br />
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===References===<br />
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* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
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* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
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* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
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===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
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March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
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On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
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On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
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The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
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===B. Creation Background===<br />
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March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
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Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
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Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
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After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
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===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
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The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
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The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
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According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
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March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
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===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
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起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
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把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
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中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
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每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
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起来！起来！起来！<br />
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我们万众一心，<br />
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冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
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前进！<br />
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冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
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前进！<br />
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前进！前进、进！<br />
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Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
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Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
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Liberty and true democracy.<br />
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All our world is facing<br />
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The chains of the tyrants.<br />
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Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
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Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
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With the torch of freedom,<br />
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March on!<br />
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With the torch of freedom,<br />
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March on!<br />
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March on! March on, and on!<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
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Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
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EMI 百代唱片<br />
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National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
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National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
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2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
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3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
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4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
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5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
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2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
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3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
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4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
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5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
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===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
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《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
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百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
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--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
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From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
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====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
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====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
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Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
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Java 爪哇<br />
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Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
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Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
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Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
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The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
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Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
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Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
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==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
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2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
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3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
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4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
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5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
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2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
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3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
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4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
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5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
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Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
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Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
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[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
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[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
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[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
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===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
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The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
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====Water Margin====<br />
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''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
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With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
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====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
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====Journey to the West====<br />
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''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
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The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
<br />
1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
<br />
2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
<br />
3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
<br />
4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
<br />
<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
<br />
It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
<br />
====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
<br />
During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
<br />
====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
<br />
Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
<br />
After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
<br />
But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
<br />
====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
<br />
But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
<br />
<br />
Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
<br />
Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
<br />
the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
<br />
Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
<br />
The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
<br />
2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
<br />
3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
<br />
4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
<br />
2.Realgar wine<br />
<br />
3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
<br />
4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
<br />
5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
<br />
Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
<br />
Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
<br />
For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
<br />
The main mountain主山<br />
<br />
Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense第一防线<br />
<br />
trench天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
<br />
Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
<br />
Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
<br />
Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
<br />
dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
<br />
Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
<br />
black rice 乌饭<br />
<br />
historical interest名胜古迹<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
<br />
glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
<br />
satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
<br />
Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
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4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
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5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
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6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
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7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
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4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
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5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
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6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
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7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
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Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
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<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
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propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
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fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
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filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
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Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
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Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
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Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
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====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
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Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
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Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). They were one-panel screens rather than folding screens then. The origin of folding screens, however, could be traced to the Han dynasty (206 BC - 200 CE). Depictions of them have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in Zhucheng, Shandong Province. (Sarah, 2007)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, website)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, website)<br />
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====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)<br />
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Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)<br />
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By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
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In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
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Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
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the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
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Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
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====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
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2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
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3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
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===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
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Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
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The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
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In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
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The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
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The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
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They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
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Pleistocene 更新世<br />
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rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
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cellulose 纤维素 <br />
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burgeons 嫩枝<br />
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===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
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2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
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3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
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4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
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[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
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[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
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[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
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[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
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Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.Representative figures====<br />
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Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
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Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
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Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
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After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
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As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
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Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
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Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
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Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
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First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
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Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
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Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
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In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.Works====<br />
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Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
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Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
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It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====References====<br />
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*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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1.Legalism法家 <br />
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2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
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3.the way of king王道 <br />
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4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
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5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
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6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
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7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
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8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
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9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
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2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
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3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
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4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
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5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
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6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
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7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11832820201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:13:43Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.1 Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''A. Round Table'''<br />
<br />
If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Square Table'''<br />
<br />
In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
<br />
In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
<br />
Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
<br />
'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
<br />
1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
<br />
Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''C. Elegance'''<br />
<br />
1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
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1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
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2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
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3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
<br />
4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
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6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
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7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
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2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
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3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
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4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
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5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
<br />
===A.Midea===<br />
<br />
Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
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To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
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Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
<br />
Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
<br />
Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
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In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
<br />
In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
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Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
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Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
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Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
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From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
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In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
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Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
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During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
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Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
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===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
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In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
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Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
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On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
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On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
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In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
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Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
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Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
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Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
<br />
''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
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1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
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2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
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3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
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4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
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====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
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It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
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====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
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Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
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====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
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But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
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====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
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During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
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Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
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But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
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Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
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Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
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the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
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The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
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2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
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3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
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4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
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5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
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3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
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4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
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5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
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Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
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Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
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Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
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The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
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The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
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Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
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Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
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glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
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Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
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Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
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County 《县志》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
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2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
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3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
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4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
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5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
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3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
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4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
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===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
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*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
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*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
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*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
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*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
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*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
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1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
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2. Yueyang Tower<br />
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3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
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Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
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====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
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The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
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During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
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Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
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====Yueyang Tower====<br />
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Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
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In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
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The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
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Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
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====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
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Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
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What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
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For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
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The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
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[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
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The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
<br />
The main mountain主山<br />
<br />
Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense第一防线<br />
<br />
trench天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
<br />
Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
<br />
Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
<br />
Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
<br />
dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
<br />
Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
<br />
black rice 乌饭<br />
<br />
historical interest名胜古迹<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
<br />
glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
<br />
satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
<br />
Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
<br />
propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
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fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
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filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
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Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
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Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
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Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). They were one-panel screens rather than folding screens then. The origin of folding screens, however, could be traced to the Han dynasty (206 BC - 200 CE). Depictions of them have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in Zhucheng, Shandong Province. (Sarah, 2007)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, website)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, website)<br />
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====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
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Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.<br />
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====1.4 Spread====<br />
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After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold, 2008)<br />
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Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Coco Chanel, 2010)<br />
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By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists.<br />
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In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
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Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
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the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
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Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
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3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
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Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
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4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
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4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
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5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
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6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
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7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
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8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
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2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
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6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11832520201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:12:41Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.4 Spread */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''A. Round Table'''<br />
<br />
If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Square Table'''<br />
<br />
In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
<br />
In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
<br />
Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
<br />
'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
<br />
1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
<br />
Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''C. Elegance'''<br />
<br />
1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
<br />
1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
<br />
5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
<br />
2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
<br />
4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
<br />
6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
<br />
7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
<br />
Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
<br />
burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
<br />
“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
<br />
side plate 小菜碟<br />
<br />
napkin 餐巾纸<br />
<br />
handkerchief 手帕<br />
<br />
phlegm 痰<br />
<br />
windpipe 气管<br />
<br />
joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
<br />
ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
<br />
skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
<br />
serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
<br />
2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
<br />
3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
<br />
4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
<br />
5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
<br />
6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
<br />
2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
<br />
3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
<br />
4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
<br />
5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
<br />
6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
<br />
===A.Midea===<br />
<br />
Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
<br />
To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
<br />
Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
<br />
Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
<br />
Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
<br />
In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
<br />
Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
<br />
In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
<br />
Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
<br />
Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
<br />
Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
<br />
From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
<br />
''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
<br />
1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
<br />
2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
<br />
3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
<br />
4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
<br />
<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
<br />
It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
<br />
====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
<br />
During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
<br />
====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
<br />
Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
<br />
After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
<br />
But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
<br />
====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
<br />
But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
<br />
<br />
Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
<br />
Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
<br />
the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
<br />
Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
<br />
The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
<br />
2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
<br />
3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
<br />
4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
<br />
2.Realgar wine<br />
<br />
3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
<br />
4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
<br />
5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
<br />
Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
<br />
Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
<br />
For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
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Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
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Yang House 阳宅<br />
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Yin House 阴宅<br />
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The main mountain主山<br />
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Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
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man-made canal 人工运河<br />
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Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
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Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
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the first line of defense第一防线<br />
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trench天堑<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
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2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
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3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
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4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
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5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
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2.Yangzhou.<br />
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3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
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4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
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5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
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===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
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The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
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Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
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Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
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Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
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Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
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Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
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Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
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God of Wealth 财神<br />
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dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
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Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
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the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
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black rice 乌饭<br />
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historical interest名胜古迹<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
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2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
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3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
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4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
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5.Fangshan drum.<br />
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===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
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The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
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[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
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The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
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glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
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satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
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Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
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lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
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the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
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4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
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5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
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6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
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7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
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<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
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Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
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===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
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===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
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===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
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===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
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===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
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Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
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benevolence 仁<br />
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righteousness 义<br />
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propriety 礼<br />
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wisdom 智<br />
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fidelity 信<br />
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moral code 道德准则<br />
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filial piety 孝道<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
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4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
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5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
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3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
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4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
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5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017,1)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). They were one-panel screens rather than folding screens then. The origin of folding screens, however, could be traced to the Han dynasty (206 BC - 200 CE). Depictions of them have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in Zhucheng, Shandong Province. (Sarah, 2007)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, website)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, website)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold, 2008)<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Coco Chanel, 2010)<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists.<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11832420201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:11:56Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.3 Uses */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''A. Round Table'''<br />
<br />
If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Square Table'''<br />
<br />
In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
<br />
In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
<br />
Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
<br />
'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
<br />
1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
<br />
Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''C. Elegance'''<br />
<br />
1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
<br />
1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
<br />
5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
<br />
2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
<br />
4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
<br />
6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
<br />
7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
<br />
Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
<br />
burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
<br />
“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
<br />
side plate 小菜碟<br />
<br />
napkin 餐巾纸<br />
<br />
handkerchief 手帕<br />
<br />
phlegm 痰<br />
<br />
windpipe 气管<br />
<br />
joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
<br />
ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
<br />
skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
<br />
serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
<br />
2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
<br />
3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
<br />
4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
<br />
5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
<br />
6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
<br />
2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
<br />
3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
<br />
4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
<br />
5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
<br />
6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
<br />
===A.Midea===<br />
<br />
Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
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To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
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Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
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Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
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Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
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In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
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Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
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===B.Haier===<br />
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Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
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Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
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Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
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From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
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In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
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Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
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During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
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Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
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===C.Gree===<br />
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Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
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In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
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Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
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On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
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On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
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In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
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Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
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Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
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Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
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leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
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air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
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Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
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3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
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Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
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chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
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Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
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TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
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Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
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Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
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Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
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Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
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HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
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Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
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Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
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Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
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leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
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Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
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air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
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Tmall 天猫<br />
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Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
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Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
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3Q report 三季报 <br />
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IoT 物联网 <br />
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Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
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Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
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chain group 链群 <br />
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Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
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Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
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TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
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Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
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Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
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Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
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Created in China 中国创造 <br />
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General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
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Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
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COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
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Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
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2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
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3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
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4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
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5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
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6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
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7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
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8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
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9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
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10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
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11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
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12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
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2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
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3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
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4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
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5.White home appliances.<br />
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6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
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7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
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8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
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Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
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10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
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(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
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(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
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11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
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12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
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===References===<br />
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1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
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2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
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8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
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9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
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[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
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[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
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===B Establishment process===<br />
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===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
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On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
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===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
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Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
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Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
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Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
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The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
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Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
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===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
<br />
''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
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孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
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康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
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--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
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<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
<br />
1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
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2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
<br />
3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
<br />
4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
<br />
<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
<br />
It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
<br />
====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
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Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
<br />
====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
<br />
But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
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====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
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During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
<br />
But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
<br />
<br />
Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
<br />
the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
<br />
The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
<br />
2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
<br />
3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
<br />
4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
<br />
2.Realgar wine<br />
<br />
3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
<br />
4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
<br />
5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
<br />
Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
<br />
Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
<br />
For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
<br />
The main mountain主山<br />
<br />
Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense第一防线<br />
<br />
trench天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
<br />
Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
<br />
Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
<br />
Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
<br />
dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
<br />
Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
<br />
black rice 乌饭<br />
<br />
historical interest名胜古迹<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
<br />
glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
<br />
satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
<br />
Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
<br />
propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
<br />
fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
<br />
filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
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Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017,1)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). They were one-panel screens rather than folding screens then. The origin of folding screens, however, could be traced to the Han dynasty (206 BC - 200 CE). Depictions of them have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in Zhucheng, Shandong Province. (Sarah, 2007)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, website)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, website)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold, 2008)（ pages are missing）<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Coco Chanel, 2010)（ pages are missing）<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists.(No citation)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
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rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11831820201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:09:17Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.2 History and Technology */</p>
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<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
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'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
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*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
<br />
However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
<br />
The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
<br />
According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
<br />
The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
<br />
6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Taoism 道教<br />
<br />
cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
<br />
plank 厚木板<br />
<br />
Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
<br />
Zen 禅宗<br />
<br />
Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
<br />
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
<br />
practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
<br />
monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
<br />
7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
<br />
China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
<br />
[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
====Attendance====<br />
<br />
As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
<br />
<br />
Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
<br />
1. the imperial court <br />
<br />
2. local authorities<br />
<br />
3. trade associations and <br />
<br />
4. farmers and workers <br />
<br />
In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
<br />
1. master of the banquet<br />
<br />
2. honored guest(s) <br />
<br />
3. other guests. <br />
<br />
The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''A. Round Table'''<br />
<br />
If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Square Table'''<br />
<br />
In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
<br />
'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
<br />
In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
<br />
Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
<br />
'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
<br />
1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
<br />
Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
'''C. Elegance'''<br />
<br />
1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
<br />
====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
<br />
1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
<br />
5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
<br />
[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
<br />
2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
<br />
4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
<br />
6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
<br />
7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
<br />
Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
<br />
burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
<br />
“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
<br />
side plate 小菜碟<br />
<br />
napkin 餐巾纸<br />
<br />
handkerchief 手帕<br />
<br />
phlegm 痰<br />
<br />
windpipe 气管<br />
<br />
joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
<br />
ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
<br />
skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
<br />
serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
<br />
2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
<br />
3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
<br />
4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
<br />
5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
<br />
6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
<br />
2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
<br />
3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
<br />
4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
<br />
5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
<br />
6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
<br />
===A.Midea===<br />
<br />
Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
<br />
To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
<br />
Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
<br />
Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
<br />
Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
<br />
In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
<br />
Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
<br />
In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
<br />
Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
<br />
Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
<br />
Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
<br />
From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
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On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
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On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
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In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
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air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
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Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
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3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
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Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
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chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
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Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
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TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
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Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
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Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
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Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
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TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
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Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
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Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
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Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
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4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
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5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
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6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
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8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
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10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
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11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
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12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
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2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
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3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
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4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
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5.White home appliances.<br />
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6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
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7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
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8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
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Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
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10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
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(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
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(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
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11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
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12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
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=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
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Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
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The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
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Java 爪哇<br />
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Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
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Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
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Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
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The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
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Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
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Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
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==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
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2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
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3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
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4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
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5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
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2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
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3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
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4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
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5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
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Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
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Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
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[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
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[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
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[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
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===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
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The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
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====Water Margin====<br />
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''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
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With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
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====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
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====Journey to the West====<br />
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''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
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The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
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====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
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孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
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大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
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康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
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天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
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2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
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3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
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4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
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4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
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3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
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4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
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4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
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*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
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*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
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*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
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*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
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*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
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*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
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*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
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--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
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1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
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2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
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3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
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4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
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====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
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It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
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====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
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Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
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====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
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But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
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====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
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During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
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Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
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But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
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Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
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Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
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the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
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The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
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2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
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3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
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4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
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5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
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3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
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4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
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5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
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Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
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Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
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Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
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Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
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Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
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Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
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Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
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Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
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The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
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The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
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Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
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Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
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glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
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Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
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Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
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County 《县志》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
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2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
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3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
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4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
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5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
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3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
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4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
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===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
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*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
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*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
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*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
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*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
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*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
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1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
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2. Yueyang Tower<br />
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3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
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Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
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====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
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The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
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During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
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Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
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====Yueyang Tower====<br />
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Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
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In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
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The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
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Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
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====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
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Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
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What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
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For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
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The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
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[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
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The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
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Yangtze River 长江<br />
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Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
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4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
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State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
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Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
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Storey n. 层<br />
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Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
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2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
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3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
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4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
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5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
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2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
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3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
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4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
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5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
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====References====<br />
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Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
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===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
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===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
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Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
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Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
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During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
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Yang House 阳宅<br />
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Yin House 阴宅<br />
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The main mountain主山<br />
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Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
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man-made canal 人工运河<br />
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Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
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Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
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the first line of defense第一防线<br />
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trench天堑<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
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2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
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3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
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4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
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5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
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2.Yangzhou.<br />
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3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
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4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
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5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
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===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
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The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
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Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
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Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
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Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
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Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
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Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
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God of Wealth 财神<br />
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dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
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Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
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the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
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black rice 乌饭<br />
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historical interest名胜古迹<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
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===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
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[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
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glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
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satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
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Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
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lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
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Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
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<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
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===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
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===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
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===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
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===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
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Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
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benevolence 仁<br />
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righteousness 义<br />
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propriety 礼<br />
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wisdom 智<br />
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fidelity 信<br />
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moral code 道德准则<br />
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filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
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4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
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4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
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5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
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Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
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Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
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====Brief Introduction====<br />
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Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
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After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
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In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
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Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
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Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017,1)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
<br />
Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). They were one-panel screens rather than folding screens then. The origin of folding screens, however, could be traced to the Han dynasty (206 BC - 200 CE). Depictions of them have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in Zhucheng, Shandong Province. (Sarah, 2007)<br />
<br />
Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, website)<br />
<br />
They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, website)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Uses====<br />
<br />
Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(No citation)<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.4 Spread====<br />
<br />
After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold, 2008)（ pages are missing）<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Coco Chanel, 2010)（ pages are missing）<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists.(No citation)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
<br />
the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
<br />
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
<br />
====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
<br />
3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
<br />
4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
<br />
5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
<br />
===1.7 Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
<br />
===1.8 References===<br />
<br />
Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
<br />
Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
<br />
Pleistocene 更新世<br />
<br />
rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
<br />
cellulose 纤维素 <br />
<br />
burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
<br />
2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
<br />
4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.Representative figures====<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11831520201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:07:58Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.1 Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
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'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
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Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
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Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
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With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
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E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
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E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
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However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
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The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
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According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
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The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
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成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
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信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
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战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
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2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
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4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
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6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
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===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
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6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Taoism 道教<br />
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cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
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plank 厚木板<br />
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Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
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Zen 禅宗<br />
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Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
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Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
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practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
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monastery 寺庙<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
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From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
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Loyalty 忠<br />
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Filial Piety 孝<br />
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Benevolence 仁<br />
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Righteousness 义<br />
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poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
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Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
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Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
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Zu Xue 族学<br />
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archery 射<br />
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chariot- riding 御<br />
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calligraphy 书<br />
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computation 数<br />
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state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
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The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
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The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
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The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
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Four Books 四书<br />
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Shuyuan 书院<br />
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Guozijian 国子监<br />
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Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
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Six Arts 六艺<br />
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Jinshi 进士<br />
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Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
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Bangyan 榜眼<br />
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Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
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2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
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3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
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4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
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What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
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6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
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7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
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8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
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2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
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3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
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4.Noblemen’s children<br />
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5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
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6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
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7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
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8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
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===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
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China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
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[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Attendance====<br />
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As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
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Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
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1. the imperial court <br />
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2. local authorities<br />
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3. trade associations and <br />
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4. farmers and workers <br />
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In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
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1. master of the banquet<br />
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2. honored guest(s) <br />
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3. other guests. <br />
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The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''A. Round Table'''<br />
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If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''B. Square Table'''<br />
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In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
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In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
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[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
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Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
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'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
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1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
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Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''C. Elegance'''<br />
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1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
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1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
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2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
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3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
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4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
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6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
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7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
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2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
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3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
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4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
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5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
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===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
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===A.Midea===<br />
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Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
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To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
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Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
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Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
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Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
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In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
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Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
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===B.Haier===<br />
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Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
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Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
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Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
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From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
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1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
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2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
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3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
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4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
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5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
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====Merits====<br />
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1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
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2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
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3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
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4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
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5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
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6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
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the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
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integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
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seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
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a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
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viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
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shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
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1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
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2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
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3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
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4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
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5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
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6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
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2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
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3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
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4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
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5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
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6. High-speed rails.<br />
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===B. QR code payment===<br />
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The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
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====Background====<br />
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The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
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====Characteristics====<br />
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At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
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1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
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Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
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jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
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Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
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1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
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2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
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3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
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4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
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2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
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3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
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4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
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===C. Shared bikes===<br />
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As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
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====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
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By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
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1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
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2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
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3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
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====Development====<br />
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China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
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free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
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last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
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the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
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2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
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3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
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4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
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2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
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3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
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4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
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===D. Online shopping===<br />
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Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
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====Definition====<br />
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Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
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====Development====<br />
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As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
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With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
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With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
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'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
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retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
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direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
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secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
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'''Questions'''<br />
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1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
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2. How could people pay online?<br />
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3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
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'''Answers'''<br />
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1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
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2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
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3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
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===References===<br />
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中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
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Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
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东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
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===A.Huawei===<br />
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Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
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Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
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"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
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[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
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For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
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===Terms and Expression===<br />
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Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
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optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
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intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
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AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
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information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
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===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
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2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
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3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
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4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
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5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
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6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
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7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
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8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
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9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
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10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
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===Answers:===<br />
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1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
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2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
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3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
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4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
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5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
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6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
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7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
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8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
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②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
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9. The Mate 30.<br />
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10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
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Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
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Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
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With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
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[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
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“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
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Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
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IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
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Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
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VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
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electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
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===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
<br />
The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
<br />
====Water Margin====<br />
<br />
''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
<br />
With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
<br />
====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
<br />
''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
<br />
====Journey to the West====<br />
<br />
''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
<br />
The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
<br />
====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
<br />
''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
<br />
孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
<br />
大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
<br />
康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
<br />
天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
<br />
2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
<br />
3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
<br />
4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
<br />
4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
<br />
3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
<br />
4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
<br />
4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
<br />
*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
<br />
*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
<br />
*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
<br />
*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
<br />
*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
<br />
--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
<br />
1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
<br />
2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
<br />
3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
<br />
4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
<br />
<br />
====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
<br />
It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
<br />
====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
<br />
====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
<br />
But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
<br />
====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
<br />
But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
<br />
<br />
Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
<br />
Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
<br />
Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
<br />
the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
<br />
Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
<br />
The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
<br />
2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
<br />
3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
<br />
4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
<br />
5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
<br />
2.Realgar wine<br />
<br />
3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
<br />
4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
<br />
5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
<br />
Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
<br />
Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
<br />
Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
<br />
Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
<br />
Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
<br />
Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
<br />
Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
<br />
====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
<br />
The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
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Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
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Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
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County 《县志》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
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4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
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2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
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Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
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Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
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For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
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The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
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The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
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Yangtze River 长江<br />
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Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
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4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
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State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
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Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
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Storey n. 层<br />
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Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
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3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
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Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
<br />
The main mountain主山<br />
<br />
Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense第一防线<br />
<br />
trench天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
<br />
Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
<br />
Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
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Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
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dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
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Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
<br />
black rice 乌饭<br />
<br />
historical interest名胜古迹<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
<br />
glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
<br />
satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
<br />
Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
<br />
lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
<br />
the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
<br />
4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
<br />
5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
<br />
7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
<br />
2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
<br />
3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
<br />
4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
<br />
5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
<br />
6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
<br />
7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
<br />
[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
<br />
Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
<br />
===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
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<br />
===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
<br />
<br />
===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
<br />
Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
<br />
===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
<br />
benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
righteousness 义<br />
<br />
propriety 礼<br />
<br />
wisdom 智<br />
<br />
fidelity 信<br />
<br />
moral code 道德准则<br />
<br />
filial piety 孝道<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
<br />
2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
<br />
3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
<br />
4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
<br />
5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
<br />
2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
<br />
3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
<br />
4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
<br />
5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
<br />
Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====Brief Introduction====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
<br />
In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
<br />
Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
<br />
In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
<br />
In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
<br />
====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
<br />
Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
<br />
2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
<br />
3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
<br />
4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
<br />
5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
<br />
6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
<br />
2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
<br />
5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
<br />
6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
<br />
Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017,1)<br />
<br />
====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
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Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). They were one-panel screens rather than folding screens then. The origin of folding screens, however, could be traced to the Han dynasty (206 BC - 200 CE). Depictions of them have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in Zhucheng, Shandong Province. (Sarah,2007)（ pages are missing）<br />
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Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014)（ pages are missing）<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden)（ year and pages are missing）<br />
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They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden)（ year and pages are missing）<br />
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====1.3 Uses====<br />
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Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
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Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(No citation)<br />
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====1.4 Spread====<br />
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After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold, 2008)（ pages are missing）<br />
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Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Coco Chanel, 2010)（ pages are missing）<br />
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By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists.(No citation)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
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====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
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Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
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the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
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Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
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====1.6 Questions====<br />
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1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
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2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
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3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
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4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
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5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
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===1.7 Answers===<br />
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1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). <br />
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2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
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3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
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4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
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5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
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===1.8 References===<br />
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Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
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Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
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Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
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Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
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Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
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David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
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Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
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The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
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In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
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The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
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The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
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The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
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They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
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Pleistocene 更新世<br />
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rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
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cellulose 纤维素 <br />
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burgeons 嫩枝<br />
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===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
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2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
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3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
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4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
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[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
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[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
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[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
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[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
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Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.Representative figures====<br />
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Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
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Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
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Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
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After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
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As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
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Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
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Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
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Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_3&diff=11831320201215 cultexam 32020-12-21T12:07:32Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.1 Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
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'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==<br />
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China<br />
(中国古代四大才女)<br />
<br />
===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===<br />
<br />
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)<br />
<br />
About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)<br />
<br />
<br />
After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)<br />
<br />
<br />
Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.<br />
<br />
===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===<br />
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.<br />
<br />
With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).<br />
<br />
In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.<br />
<br />
The following is the original poem:<br />
<br />
白头吟<br />
<br />
皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。<br />
<br />
闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。<br />
<br />
今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;<br />
<br />
躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。<br />
<br />
愿得一心人，白头不相离。 <br />
<br />
竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。<br />
<br />
男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？<br />
<br />
The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:<br />
<br />
Bai Tou Yin<br />
<br />
Our love like snow on mountains proud,<br />
<br />
Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.<br />
<br />
I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;<br />
<br />
I come to say goodbye to you.<br />
<br />
We drink a cup of wine today;<br />
<br />
Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.<br />
<br />
By royal moat we’ll walk and go,<br />
<br />
Like waters which east or west flow.<br />
<br />
Why should I fell so sad and drear,<br />
<br />
And like a bride shed tear on tear?<br />
<br />
If I’d wed one with single heart,<br />
<br />
Even white-haired, we would not part.<br />
<br />
Long,long may be your fishing lines,<br />
<br />
You cannot catch fishtail while shines.<br />
<br />
If your love were constant and true,<br />
<br />
Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)<br />
<br />
===Li Qingzhao 李清照===<br />
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）<br />
<br />
As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.<br />
<br />
===Ban Zhao 班昭===<br />
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).<br />
<br />
Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).<br />
<br />
In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬<br />
<br />
Cai Yong 蔡邕<br />
<br />
Fan Ye 范晔<br />
<br />
''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》<br />
<br />
''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》<br />
<br />
''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》<br />
<br />
''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》<br />
<br />
''five-character verse'' 五言体<br />
<br />
Sao style 骚体<br />
<br />
autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao 李清照<br />
<br />
''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》<br />
<br />
''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》<br />
<br />
''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》<br />
<br />
Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君<br />
<br />
''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》<br />
<br />
''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》<br />
<br />
''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》<br />
<br />
''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》<br />
<br />
''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009<br />
<br />
[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016<br />
<br />
[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17<br />
<br />
[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?<br />
<br />
3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?<br />
<br />
4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?<br />
<br />
5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?<br />
<br />
6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.<br />
<br />
2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .<br />
<br />
3. Sima Xiangru.<br />
<br />
4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.<br />
<br />
5. Li Qigzhao.<br />
<br />
6. Ban Zhao.<br />
<br />
7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.<br />
<br />
==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==<br />
<br />
Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===<br />
<br />
====1.Pigeon post====<br />
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）<br />
<br />
Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.<br />
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)<br />
<br />
====2.Paper Letters====<br />
<br />
The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver. <br />
<br />
Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.<br />
<br />
With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）<br />
<br />
====3.E-mails====<br />
<br />
E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).<br />
<br />
E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.<br />
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However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.<br />
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The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.<br />
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According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"<br />
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The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.<br />
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.<br />
<br />
It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin <br />
<br />
4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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条件反射conditioned reflex<br />
<br />
成吉思汗 Genghis Khan<br />
<br />
信鸽驿站pigeon post station<br />
<br />
战鸽war pigeon<br />
<br />
分隔符separator<br />
<br />
服务器域名domain name<br />
<br />
互联网周刊Internet Week<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?<br />
<br />
2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?<br />
<br />
3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?<br />
<br />
4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?<br />
<br />
5.When did the world's first emails appear?<br />
<br />
6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”<br />
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===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.<br />
<br />
2.Ravens.<br />
<br />
3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, <br />
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.<br />
<br />
4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.<br />
<br />
5.October 1969<br />
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6.跨越长城，连接世界<br />
<br />
==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.<br />
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.<br />
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)<br />
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.<br />
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)<br />
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.<br />
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)<br />
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)<br />
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.<br />
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)<br />
<br />
===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===<br />
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)<br />
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.<br />
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017<br />
<br />
Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Taoism 道教<br />
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cultural revolution 文化大革命<br />
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plank 厚木板<br />
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Hanging Monastery 悬空寺<br />
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Zen 禅宗<br />
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Shaolin Temple 少林寺<br />
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Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝<br />
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practitioners of martial arts 习武之人<br />
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monastery 寺庙<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？<br />
<br />
2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?<br />
<br />
3. What is the largest temple in southern China?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of Mount Hua?<br />
<br />
5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?<br />
<br />
6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.<br />
<br />
2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫<br />
<br />
四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白<br />
<br />
泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易<br />
<br />
3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).<br />
<br />
4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.<br />
<br />
5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.<br />
<br />
6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==<br />
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===Ancient Chinese Education===<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)<br />
<br />
From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Confucian Educational Theory====<br />
<br />
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”<br />
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.<br />
<br />
In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:<br />
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.<br />
Learning and Thinking are equally important. <br />
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.<br />
Inspiration and Guidance.<br />
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
<br />
Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:<br />
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)<br />
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.<br />
<br />
The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius) <br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Imperial Examination====<br />
<br />
The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）<br />
<br />
The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）<br />
<br />
However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate) <br />
<br />
In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.<br />
<br />
2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.<br />
<br />
4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育<br />
<br />
6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子<br />
<br />
7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度<br />
<br />
8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius<br />
<br />
9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm<br />
<br />
10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期<br />
<br />
Loyalty 忠<br />
<br />
Filial Piety 孝<br />
<br />
Benevolence 仁<br />
<br />
Righteousness 义<br />
<br />
poetry and rites 诗礼<br />
<br />
Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育<br />
<br />
Meng Guan 蒙馆<br />
<br />
Zu Xue 族学<br />
<br />
archery 射<br />
<br />
chariot- riding 御<br />
<br />
calligraphy 书<br />
<br />
computation 数<br />
<br />
state bureaucracy 政府机构<br />
<br />
The Three Character Classic 《三字经》<br />
<br />
The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》<br />
<br />
The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》<br />
<br />
Four Books 四书<br />
<br />
Shuyuan 书院<br />
<br />
Guozijian 国子监<br />
<br />
Confucian Five Classics 五经<br />
<br />
Six Arts 六艺<br />
<br />
Jinshi 进士<br />
<br />
Zhuangyuan 状元<br />
<br />
Bangyan 榜眼<br />
<br />
Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?<br />
<br />
2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?<br />
<br />
3.What became permanently linked right into present time?<br />
<br />
4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?<br />
<br />
What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?<br />
<br />
7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?<br />
<br />
8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.<br />
<br />
2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.<br />
<br />
3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.<br />
<br />
4.Noblemen’s children<br />
<br />
5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.<br />
<br />
6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. <br />
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7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.<br />
<br />
8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==<br />
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===Chinese Dining Etiquette===<br />
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China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)<br />
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[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Attendance====<br />
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As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====<br />
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Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :<br />
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1. the imperial court <br />
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2. local authorities<br />
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3. trade associations and <br />
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4. farmers and workers <br />
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In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to: <br />
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1. master of the banquet<br />
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2. honored guest(s) <br />
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3. other guests. <br />
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The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''A. Round Table'''<br />
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If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''B. Square Table'''<br />
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In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)<br />
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'''C. In Grand Banquet'''<br />
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In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)<br />
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[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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====Chinese Table Manners====<br />
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Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):<br />
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'''A. Considering Others'''<br />
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1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''<br />
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Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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'''C. Elegance'''<br />
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1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)<br />
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====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====<br />
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1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170) <br />
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5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)<br />
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[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.<br />
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2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.<br />
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3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005. <br />
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4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.<br />
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6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.<br />
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7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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seat of honor 上座/尊位<br />
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Eight Immortals table 八仙桌<br />
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burrow through the food 乱翻食物<br />
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“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏<br />
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side plate 小菜碟<br />
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napkin 餐巾纸<br />
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handkerchief 手帕<br />
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phlegm 痰<br />
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windpipe 气管<br />
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joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香<br />
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ancestor altar 祖先祭坛<br />
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skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子<br />
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serving chopsticks 公筷<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?<br />
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2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?<br />
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3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？<br />
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4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?<br />
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5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?<br />
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6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).<br />
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2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.<br />
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3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.<br />
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4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.<br />
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5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.<br />
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6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==<br />
<br />
===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===<br />
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===A.Midea===<br />
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Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
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Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea) <br />
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To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）<br />
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Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes. <br />
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Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.<br />
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Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
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Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.<br />
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On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.<br />
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In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances. <br />
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Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.<br />
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In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss. <br />
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Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.<br />
<br />
===B.Haier===<br />
<br />
Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)<br />
<br />
Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".<br />
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Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".<br />
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."<br />
<br />
From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.<br />
<br />
In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales. <br />
<br />
Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)<br />
<br />
During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.<br />
<br />
Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.<br />
<br />
===C.Gree===<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)<br />
<br />
In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.<br />
<br />
Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.<br />
<br />
In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out. <br />
<br />
Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.<br />
<br />
Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机<br />
<br />
<br />
HVAC 暖通空调 <br />
<br />
Shunde （广东）顺德<br />
<br />
Smart supply chain 智能供应链 <br />
<br />
Intensive Growth 内生式增长<br />
<br />
leverage ratio 杠杆率 <br />
<br />
Second Runway 第二跑道<br />
<br />
air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 <br />
<br />
Tmall 天猫<br />
<br />
Qingdao （山东）青岛 <br />
<br />
Shock Fish 休克鱼<br />
<br />
3Q report 三季报 <br />
<br />
IoT 物联网 <br />
<br />
Experience cloud 体验云 <br />
<br />
Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一 <br />
<br />
chain group 链群 <br />
<br />
Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司<br />
<br />
Candy （意大利）卡迪集团<br />
<br />
TOSOT 大松电器公司 <br />
<br />
Jinghong 晶弘电器公司 <br />
<br />
Gree Electric 格力电工 <br />
<br />
Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所 <br />
<br />
Created in China 中国创造 <br />
<br />
General Electric Company 格力电工<br />
<br />
Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 <br />
<br />
COVID-19 新型冠状病毒<br />
<br />
Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?<br />
<br />
2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?<br />
<br />
3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?<br />
<br />
4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?<br />
<br />
5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?<br />
<br />
6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?<br />
<br />
7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?<br />
<br />
8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.<br />
<br />
9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?<br />
<br />
10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?<br />
<br />
11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?<br />
<br />
12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".<br />
<br />
2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.<br />
<br />
3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.<br />
<br />
4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.<br />
<br />
5.White home appliances.<br />
<br />
6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.<br />
<br />
7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.<br />
<br />
8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.<br />
<br />
Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.<br />
<br />
9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks. <br />
<br />
10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.<br />
<br />
(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.<br />
<br />
(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.<br />
<br />
11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.<br />
<br />
12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力<br />
<br />
[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔<br />
<br />
[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的<br />
<br />
[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.<br />
<br />
[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.<br />
<br />
[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.<br />
<br />
[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/<br />
<br />
[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/<br />
<br />
[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===<br />
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.<br />
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.<br />
<br />
===B Establishment process===<br />
<br />
===1. Solicit comments from the public===<br />
<br />
On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.<br />
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.<br />
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.<br />
<br />
===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===<br />
<br />
On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.<br />
<br />
===3. Pass a resolution===<br />
<br />
The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.<br />
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.<br />
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.<br />
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.<br />
<br />
===C Symbolism of the flag===<br />
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== Terms and expressions ===<br />
<br />
五星红旗 five-star red flag<br />
<br />
中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)<br />
<br />
全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)<br />
<br />
《人民日报》 People's Daily<br />
<br />
《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily<br />
<br />
《新华日报》 xinhua Daily<br />
<br />
=== Questions ===<br />
<br />
1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?<br />
<br />
3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?<br />
<br />
5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?<br />
<br />
=== Answers ===<br />
<br />
1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.<br />
<br />
2. On September 27, 1949<br />
<br />
3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. <br />
<br />
4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. <br />
<br />
5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.<br />
<br />
[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.<br />
<br />
[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.<br />
<br />
[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.<br />
<br />
[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.<br />
<br />
[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.<br />
<br />
==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.<br />
<br />
===A. High-speed railway ===<br />
<br />
High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]<br />
<br />
====Features====<br />
<br />
1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.<br />
<br />
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.<br />
<br />
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.<br />
<br />
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs<br />
<br />
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)<br />
<br />
====Merits====<br />
<br />
1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.<br />
<br />
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.<br />
<br />
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.<br />
<br />
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.<br />
<br />
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment. <br />
<br />
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]<br />
<br />
the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪<br />
<br />
integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.<br />
<br />
seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道 <br />
<br />
a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔<br />
<br />
viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组<br />
<br />
shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?<br />
<br />
2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?<br />
<br />
3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
4. What are the features of high speed railway?<br />
<br />
5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?<br />
<br />
6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The first high speed railway come from Japan <br />
<br />
2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.<br />
<br />
3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.<br />
<br />
4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.<br />
<br />
5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.<br />
<br />
6. High-speed rails.<br />
<br />
===B. QR code payment===<br />
<br />
The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
<br />
The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)<br />
<br />
====Characteristics====<br />
<br />
At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]<br />
<br />
1. Mature technology<br />
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.<br />
2. Easy to use<br />
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.<br />
3. Convenient payment<br />
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.<br />
4. Lower cost<br />
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码 <br />
<br />
Finland芬兰 Telecom电信<br />
<br />
jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机 <br />
<br />
Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场 <br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What advanced the birth of QR code?<br />
<br />
2. When did the QR code become popular in China?<br />
<br />
3. Why does QR code cost lower?<br />
<br />
4. When was the QR code invented?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.<br />
<br />
2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.<br />
<br />
3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.<br />
<br />
4. QR code invented in 1997.<br />
<br />
===C. Shared bikes===<br />
<br />
As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas. <br />
<br />
====Function and Using Steps ====<br />
<br />
By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)<br />
<br />
1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]<br />
<br />
2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018) <br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统 <br />
<br />
free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区 <br />
<br />
last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济<br />
<br />
the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. Which country invented the shared bike?<br />
<br />
2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?<br />
<br />
3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?<br />
<br />
4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.<br />
<br />
2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation<br />
<br />
3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced<br />
<br />
4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.<br />
<br />
===D. Online shopping===<br />
<br />
Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world. <br />
<br />
====Definition====<br />
<br />
Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.<br />
<br />
With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.<br />
<br />
With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）<br />
<br />
'''Terms and Expressions'''<br />
<br />
retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司<br />
<br />
direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款<br />
<br />
secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配<br />
<br />
'''Questions'''<br />
<br />
1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?<br />
<br />
2. How could people pay online?<br />
<br />
3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?<br />
<br />
'''Answers'''<br />
<br />
1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?<br />
<br />
2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.<br />
<br />
3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.<br />
<br />
Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.<br />
<br />
Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.<br />
<br />
Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.<br />
<br />
Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.<br />
<br />
Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).<br />
<br />
Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.<br />
<br />
Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).<br />
<br />
东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==<br />
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===<br />
<br />
===A.Huawei===<br />
<br />
Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.<br />
<br />
[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)<br />
<br />
Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术<br />
<br />
optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络<br />
<br />
intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920<br />
<br />
AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库<br />
<br />
information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1. When is Huawei founded?<br />
<br />
2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate? <br />
<br />
3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?<br />
<br />
4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?<br />
<br />
6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?<br />
<br />
7.What are the company’s common values?<br />
<br />
8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?<br />
<br />
9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？<br />
<br />
10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers:===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in 1987.<br />
<br />
2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions<br />
<br />
3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.<br />
<br />
4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.<br />
<br />
5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.<br />
<br />
6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. <br />
<br />
7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.<br />
<br />
8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran. <br />
<br />
②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.<br />
<br />
9. The Mate 30.<br />
<br />
10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020<br />
<br />
===B. Xiaomi===<br />
<br />
Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)<br />
<br />
[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.<br />
<br />
“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)<br />
<br />
Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead. <br />
<br />
“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
IoT（Internet of Things） 物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器<br />
<br />
Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝<br />
<br />
VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机<br />
<br />
electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.When is Xiaomi founded?<br />
<br />
2.What is the core of this company？<br />
<br />
3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？<br />
<br />
4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？<br />
<br />
5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？<br />
<br />
6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？<br />
<br />
7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？<br />
<br />
8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？<br />
<br />
9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is founded in April 2010.<br />
<br />
2. The IoT platform.<br />
<br />
3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.<br />
<br />
4. Xiaomi Vela.<br />
<br />
5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".<br />
<br />
6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.<br />
<br />
7. The low-margin strategy.<br />
<br />
8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.<br />
<br />
9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash<br />
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？<br />
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.<br />
<br />
Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
===C. VIVO & OPPO===<br />
<br />
Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.<br />
<br />
Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expression===<br />
<br />
OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充<br />
<br />
BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁<br />
<br />
accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器<br />
<br />
===Questions:===<br />
<br />
1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？<br />
<br />
3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？<br />
<br />
4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？<br />
<br />
5.Please give a example of products from each brands.<br />
<br />
6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？<br />
<br />
7.What’s the mission of VIVO？<br />
<br />
8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？<br />
<br />
9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.<br />
<br />
2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.<br />
<br />
3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. <br />
<br />
4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.<br />
<br />
5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.<br />
<br />
6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. <br />
<br />
7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.<br />
<br />
8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).<br />
<br />
9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.<br />
<br />
vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.<br />
<br />
OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===<br />
<br />
The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)<br />
<br />
China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.<br />
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)<br />
<br />
===B.Hunan dialect===<br />
<br />
Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)<br />
<br />
The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)<br />
<br />
===C. Contonese===<br />
<br />
Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)<br />
<br />
As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
<br />
1.How many local dialects in China?<br />
<br />
2.What are they?<br />
<br />
3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect. <br />
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.9<br />
<br />
2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua<br />
<br />
3.The Chu language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.<br />
<br />
* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.<br />
<br />
* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===<br />
<br />
<br />
===A. Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.<br />
<br />
On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.<br />
<br />
On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.<br />
<br />
The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.<br />
<br />
===B. Creation Background===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.<br />
<br />
Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.<br />
<br />
After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===C. Song Appreciation===<br />
<br />
The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.<br />
<br />
The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.<br />
<br />
According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.<br />
<br />
===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===<br />
<br />
起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！<br />
<br />
把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！<br />
<br />
中华民族到了最危险的时候，<br />
<br />
每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。<br />
<br />
起来！起来！起来！<br />
<br />
我们万众一心，<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火,<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
冒着敌人的炮火，<br />
<br />
前进！<br />
<br />
前进！前进、进！<br />
<br />
<br />
Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!<br />
<br />
Let’s stand up and fight for<br />
<br />
Liberty and true democracy.<br />
<br />
All our world is facing<br />
<br />
The chains of the tyrants.<br />
<br />
Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:<br />
<br />
Arise! Arise! Arise!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
With the torch of freedom,<br />
<br />
March on!<br />
<br />
March on! March on, and on!<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女<br />
<br />
EMI 百代唱片<br />
<br />
National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会<br />
<br />
National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?<br />
<br />
2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?<br />
<br />
3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?<br />
<br />
4.When was the final draft completed?<br />
<br />
5.How did the name of this song come from?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. <br />
<br />
2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. <br />
<br />
3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017. <br />
<br />
4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft. <br />
<br />
5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)<br />
<br />
《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）<br />
<br />
百度百科.义勇军进行曲<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br />
====Zheng He's Voyages ====<br />
<br />
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)<br />
<br />
====Zheng He====<br />
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)<br />
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]] <br />
<br />
====Reasons for the voyages====<br />
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)<br />
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)<br />
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]<br />
====The seven expeditions====<br />
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)<br />
<br />
Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .<br />
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)<br />
<br />
The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)<br />
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]<br />
<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）<br />
<br />
Java 爪哇<br />
<br />
Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）<br />
<br />
Champe 占城（印度支那古国）<br />
<br />
Hormuz 霍尔木兹<br />
<br />
The Persian Gulf 波斯湾<br />
<br />
Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）<br />
<br />
Mecca 麦加 （穆斯林圣地）<br />
<br />
==== Questions====<br />
1.What was Zheng He like?<br />
<br />
2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?<br />
<br />
3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?<br />
<br />
4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?<br />
<br />
5.The last trip was sented by?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.<br />
<br />
2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.<br />
<br />
3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.<br />
<br />
4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.<br />
<br />
5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.<br />
===References===<br />
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.<br />
<br />
Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.<br />
<br />
Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]<br />
<br />
[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]<br />
<br />
[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
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===China's Four Great Classical Novels===<br />
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The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)<br />
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====Water Margin====<br />
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''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)<br />
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With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)<br />
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====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)<br />
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''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)<br />
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====Journey to the West====<br />
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''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)<br />
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The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)<br />
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====Dream of the Red Chamber====<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)<br />
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''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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农民起义 peasant uprising<br />
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孙悟空 Monkey King<br />
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大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven<br />
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康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age<br />
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天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?<br />
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2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?<br />
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3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?<br />
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4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?<br />
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4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.<br />
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2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.<br />
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3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.<br />
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4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.<br />
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4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University<br />
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*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power<br />
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*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters<br />
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*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press<br />
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*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House<br />
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*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press<br />
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*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University<br />
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*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University<br />
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--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.<br />
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1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl<br />
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2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall<br />
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3. The Story of the White Snake<br />
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4. Butterfly Lovers<br />
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====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====<br />
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It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)<br />
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Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)<br />
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====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====<br />
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During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)<br />
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Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)<br />
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====The Story of the White Snake====<br />
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Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.<br />
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After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）<br />
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But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)<br />
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====Butterfly Lovers====<br />
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During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)<br />
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Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)<br />
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But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)<br />
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Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女<br />
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Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城<br />
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Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台<br />
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the Queen Mother 王母娘娘<br />
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Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》<br />
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The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?<br />
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2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?<br />
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3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?<br />
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4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?<br />
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5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.<br />
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2.Realgar wine<br />
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3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.<br />
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4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.<br />
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5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.<br />
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Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.<br />
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Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.<br />
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Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.<br />
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Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.<br />
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Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.<br />
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Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.<br />
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Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Four Great Pavilions===<br />
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====<br />
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Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)<br />
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====Tao Ran Pavilion====<br />
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The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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====Ai Wan Pavilion====<br />
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The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
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====Hu Xin Pavilion====<br />
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Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
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It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)<br />
<br />
The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭<br />
<br />
Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景<br />
<br />
Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭 <br />
<br />
glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦<br />
<br />
Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭 <br />
<br />
Mountain Journey 《山行》<br />
<br />
Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭<br />
<br />
County 《县志》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？<br />
<br />
2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?<br />
<br />
3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?<br />
<br />
4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?<br />
<br />
5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
2. After the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Ran Pavilion.<br />
<br />
4. Ai Wan Pavilion.<br />
<br />
5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.<br />
<br />
*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.<br />
<br />
*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.<br />
<br />
*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html<br />
<br />
*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Three Great Towers in China===<br />
<br />
1. Yellow Crane Tower<br />
<br />
2. Yueyang Tower<br />
<br />
3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng<br />
<br />
Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years. <br />
<br />
====Yellow Crane Tower====<br />
<br />
The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)<br />
<br />
Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]<br />
<br />
====Yueyang Tower====<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.<br />
<br />
In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)<br />
<br />
The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）<br />
<br />
Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]<br />
<br />
====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====<br />
<br />
Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）<br />
<br />
What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)<br />
<br />
For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.<br />
<br />
The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Watchtower n. 瞭望塔<br />
<br />
The Three King Periods 三国时期<br />
<br />
Yangtze River 长江<br />
<br />
Upturned eave 飞檐<br />
<br />
4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区<br />
<br />
State Council of China 中国国务院<br />
<br />
Nostalgia n. 怀旧<br />
<br />
Storey n. 层<br />
<br />
Glazed tile 琉璃瓦<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the three great towers in China? <br />
<br />
2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying? <br />
<br />
4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?<br />
<br />
5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.<br />
<br />
2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function. <br />
<br />
3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down. <br />
<br />
4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower. <br />
<br />
5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.<br />
<br />
Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).<br />
<br />
Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.<br />
<br />
Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center><br />
<br />
===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===<br />
<br />
===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)<br />
<br />
During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Feng Shui theory风水学<br />
<br />
Yang House 阳宅<br />
<br />
Yin House 阴宅<br />
<br />
The main mountain主山<br />
<br />
Xuanwu Lake玄武湖<br />
<br />
man-made canal 人工运河<br />
<br />
Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
Qinhuai River秦淮河<br />
<br />
the first line of defense第一防线<br />
<br />
trench天堑<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?<br />
<br />
2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?<br />
<br />
3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?<br />
<br />
4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?<br />
<br />
5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.<br />
<br />
2.Yangzhou.<br />
<br />
3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.<br />
<br />
4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. <br />
<br />
5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.<br />
<br />
===B. Nature and Humanities===<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)<br />
<br />
Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节<br />
<br />
Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节<br />
<br />
Dragon Boat Festival 端午节<br />
<br />
Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节<br />
<br />
Chongyang Festival 重阳节<br />
<br />
Laba Festival porridge 腊八节<br />
<br />
God of Wealth 财神<br />
<br />
dragon lantern dance舞龙灯<br />
<br />
Fangshan drum 方山大鼓<br />
<br />
the Huatai Festival花台会<br />
<br />
black rice 乌饭<br />
<br />
historical interest名胜古迹<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.How poems describe Nanjing?<br />
<br />
2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?<br />
<br />
4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?<br />
<br />
5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?<br />
<br />
====Answer====<br />
<br />
1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".<br />
<br />
2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. <br />
<br />
3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.<br />
<br />
4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.<br />
<br />
5.Fangshan drum.<br />
<br />
===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
<br />
[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]<br />
<br />
The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
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During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)<br />
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There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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the first month in the lunar calendar正月<br />
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glutinous rice balls 汤圆<br />
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satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛<br />
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Yarn lanterns 纱灯<br />
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lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜<br />
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the Confucius Temple 夫子庙<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?<br />
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4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?<br />
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5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?<br />
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6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?<br />
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7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.<br />
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2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.<br />
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3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.<br />
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4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.<br />
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5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. <br />
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6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. <br />
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7.a lantern-shaped in horse.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.<br />
<br />
[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.<br />
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[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.<br />
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[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/<br />
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==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧 英语口译 202070080646==<br />
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Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）<br />
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===Benevolence (Ren)===<br />
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).<br />
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===Righteousness (Yi)===<br />
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).<br />
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===Propriety (Li)===<br />
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).<br />
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===Wisdom (Zhi)===<br />
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).<br />
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===Fidelity (Xin)===<br />
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4). <br />
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Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).<br />
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===Expressions and Terms===<br />
Five Constant Virtues 五常<br />
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benevolence 仁<br />
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righteousness 义<br />
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propriety 礼<br />
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wisdom 智<br />
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fidelity 信<br />
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moral code 道德准则<br />
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filial piety 孝道<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?<br />
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2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?<br />
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3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?<br />
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4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?<br />
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5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.<br />
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2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.<br />
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3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.<br />
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4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .<br />
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5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
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Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
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Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.<br />
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Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.<br />
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Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.<br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
===Cheongsam===<br />
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Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
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====Brief Introduction====<br />
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Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).<br />
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In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)<br />
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====The History of Cheongsam====<br />
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Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
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After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)<br />
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Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).<br />
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In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)<br />
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In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
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The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)<br />
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====The Significance of Cheongsam====<br />
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Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
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Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
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Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.<br />
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.<br />
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.<br />
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.<br />
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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*Cheongsam 旗袍 <br />
*the quintessence of China 国粹<br />
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
*Manchu 满族 <br />
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂<br />
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍 <br />
*sleeveless 无袖<br />
*fur trim 毛皮饰边 <br />
*Sequins 亮片<br />
*fabric printing 织物印花 <br />
*embroidery 刺绣<br />
*topless 袒胸<br />
*nude back 裸背<br />
*low collar 低领<br />
*high slit 高开叉<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.When did the cheongsam originate from?<br />
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2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China? <br />
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3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country? <br />
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4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?<br />
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5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?<br />
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6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.<br />
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2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. <br />
<br />
3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.<br />
<br />
4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. <br />
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5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.<br />
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6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.<br />
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==<br />
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====1.1 Introduction ====<br />
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Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova, 2017)<br />
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====1.2 History and Technology====<br />
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Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). They were one-panel screens rather than folding screens then. The origin of folding screens, however, could be traced to the Han dynasty (206 BC - 200 CE). Depictions of them have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in Zhucheng, Shandong Province. (Sarah,2007)（ pages are missing）<br />
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Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014)（ pages are missing）<br />
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden)（ year and pages are missing）<br />
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They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden)（ year and pages are missing）<br />
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====1.3 Uses====<br />
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Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
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Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(No citation)<br />
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====1.4 Spread====<br />
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After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold, 2008)（ pages are missing）<br />
<br />
Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated: “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Coco Chanel, 2010)（ pages are missing）<br />
<br />
By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists.(No citation)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.5 Expressions and Terms====<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》<br />
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the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国<br />
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Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇<br />
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====1.6 Questions====<br />
<br />
1. When did folding screens first appear?<br />
<br />
2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?<br />
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3. What functions do screens serve?<br />
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4. When did they spread to Europe?<br />
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5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?<br />
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===1.7 Answers===<br />
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1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). <br />
<br />
2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.<br />
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3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies. <br />
<br />
4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. <br />
<br />
5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.<br />
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===1.8 References===<br />
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Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <br />
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Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.<br />
<br />
Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html<br />
<br />
Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ <br />
<br />
Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf<br />
<br />
David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/<br />
<br />
Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚 英语笔译 202070080618==<br />
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)<br />
<br />
In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\<br />
<br />
The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)<br />
<br />
The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)<br />
<br />
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)<br />
<br />
They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====='''Terms and expressions'''====<br />
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫 <br />
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Pleistocene 更新世<br />
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rhizomys 竹鼠<br />
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cellulose 纤维素 <br />
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burgeons 嫩枝<br />
<br />
===='''Questions'''====<br />
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?<br />
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2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?<br />
<br />
3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?<br />
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4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.<br />
<br />
[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.<br />
<br />
[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.<br />
<br />
[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.<br />
<br />
[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==<br />
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).<br />
<br />
Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.Representative figures====<br />
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Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).<br />
<br />
After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52). <br />
<br />
As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
<br />
Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.Values====<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).<br />
<br />
First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).<br />
<br />
In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Works====<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).<br />
<br />
Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).<br />
<br />
It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.<br />
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.<br />
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.<br />
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.<br />
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
1.Legalism法家 <br />
<br />
2.the way of emperor帝道<br />
<br />
3.the way of king王道 <br />
<br />
4.the overbearing way 霸道<br />
<br />
5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害<br />
<br />
6.self-contradiction自相矛盾<br />
<br />
7.wait for windfalls守株待兔<br />
<br />
8.safety in numbers滥竽充数<br />
<br />
9.sense comes with age老马识途<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.When did legalism become mature?<br />
<br />
2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?<br />
<br />
3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?<br />
<br />
4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?<br />
<br />
5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?<br />
<br />
6.What are the classical works of legalism?<br />
<br />
7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.<br />
<br />
2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.<br />
<br />
3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.<br />
<br />
4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing. <br />
<br />
5.Yes.<br />
<br />
6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.<br />
<br />
7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118301History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T12:03:16Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
<br />
Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
<br />
However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
<br />
It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
<br />
He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
<br />
The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
<br />
1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
<br />
2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
<br />
3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
<br />
4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
<br />
Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
<br />
These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
<br />
===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
<br />
The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
<br />
He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
<br />
Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
<br />
Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
<br />
It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
<br />
Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
<br />
Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
<br />
Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
<br />
1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
<br />
2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
<br />
3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
<br />
4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
<br />
It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
<br />
Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
<br />
Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
<br />
Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
<br />
Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
<br />
===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
<br />
While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
<br />
A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
<br />
===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
<br />
An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
<br />
Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
<br />
Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
<br />
Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
<br />
In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
<br />
In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
<br />
Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
<br />
It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
<br />
顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
<br />
张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
<br />
--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
<br />
A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
<br />
It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
<br />
Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
<br />
===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It has also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
<br />
In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
<br />
Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
<br />
From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
<br />
Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
<br />
The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
<br />
Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
<br />
In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
<br />
With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
<br />
===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
<br />
====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
<br />
For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
<br />
There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
<br />
Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
<br />
The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
<br />
It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
<br />
====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
<br />
Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
<br />
"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
<br />
Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
<br />
====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
<br />
=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
<br />
This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
<br />
In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
<br />
Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
<br />
For readers in the target country, foreignizing translation of popular works form the source language country is more likely to be accepted. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture.Therefore, when Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. <br />
<br />
With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under this background, Yang Xianyi, a Chinese translator’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. From this perspective, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When choosing a work of the source language, the translators should consider the readers’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on different expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
<br />
When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
<br />
In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
<br />
The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
<br />
This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
<br />
In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
<br />
====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
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====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
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The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
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[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
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== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
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Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
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===题目===<br />
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解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
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笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
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In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
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The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
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The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
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These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
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Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
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===1.Literature Review===<br />
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This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
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====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
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Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
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The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
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With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
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Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
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Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
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====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
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Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
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As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
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Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
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The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
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As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
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Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
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Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
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This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
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====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
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Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
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Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
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Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
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Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
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At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
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Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
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But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
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====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
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Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
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His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
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===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
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====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
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The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
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=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
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1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
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林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
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黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
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他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
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This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
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The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
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According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
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Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
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=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
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Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
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黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
<br />
This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
<br />
This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
<br />
In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
<br />
====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
<br />
British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
<br />
A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
<br />
6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
<br />
林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
<br />
黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
<br />
In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
<br />
Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
<br />
This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
<br />
The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
<br />
Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
<br />
7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
<br />
林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
<br />
黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
<br />
林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
<br />
黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
<br />
A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
<br />
2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
<br />
*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
<br />
That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
<br />
===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
<br />
When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
<br />
In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
<br />
Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
<br />
Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
<br />
Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
<br />
To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
<br />
In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
<br />
This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
<br />
'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
<br />
Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
<br />
In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
<br />
(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
<br />
In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
<br />
(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
<br />
So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
<br />
(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
<br />
'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
<br />
(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
<br />
(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
<br />
When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
<br />
(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
<br />
'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
<br />
Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
<br />
In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
<br />
(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
<br />
However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
<br />
(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
<br />
Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
<br />
Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
<br />
(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
<br />
'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
<br />
There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
<br />
(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
<br />
(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
<br />
Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
<br />
In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
<br />
'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
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*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
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<br />
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*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
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The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
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===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
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In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
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There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
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To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
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Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
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In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
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'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
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Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
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The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
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As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
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It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
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'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
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Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
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Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
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Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
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===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
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What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
<br />
In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
<br />
He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
<br />
Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
<br />
The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
<br />
===4. conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
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Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
<br />
That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
<br />
Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
<br />
According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
<br />
Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
<br />
We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
<br />
Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
<br />
If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
<br />
This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
<br />
The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
<br />
Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
<br />
There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
<br />
Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
<br />
我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
<br />
By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
<br />
In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
<br />
(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
<br />
This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
<br />
1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
<br />
2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
===4. Application of back translation===<br />
<br />
Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
<br />
At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
<br />
Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
<br />
Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
<br />
Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
<br />
The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
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Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
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Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
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Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
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Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
<br />
From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
<br />
“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
<br />
Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
<br />
===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
<br />
These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
<br />
Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
<br />
Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
<br />
Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
<br />
好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
<br />
Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
<br />
别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
<br />
If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
<br />
By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
<br />
我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
<br />
For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
<br />
因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
<br />
All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
<br />
Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
<br />
Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
<br />
Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
<br />
Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
<br />
Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
<br />
Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
<br />
Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
<br />
In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
<br />
“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
<br />
A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
<br />
You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
<br />
Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
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或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
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Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
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Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
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I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
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我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
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Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
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如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
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I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
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And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
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随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
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Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
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你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
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This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
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这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
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I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
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我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
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If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
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如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
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The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
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[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
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[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
<br />
The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
<br />
===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
<br />
"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
<br />
===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
<br />
Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
<br />
You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
<br />
Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
<br />
Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
<br />
(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
<br />
(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
<br />
For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
<br />
(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
<br />
In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
<br />
'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
<br />
First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
<br />
(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
<br />
Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
<br />
'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
<br />
'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
<br />
For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
<br />
Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
<br />
Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
<br />
'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
<br />
What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
<br />
John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
<br />
The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
<br />
'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
<br />
The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
<br />
'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
<br />
Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
<br />
Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
<br />
Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
<br />
Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
<br />
'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
<br />
Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
<br />
The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
<br />
Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
<br />
These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
<br />
(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
<br />
(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
<br />
(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
<br />
(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
<br />
(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
<br />
(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
<br />
(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
<br />
(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
<br />
(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
<br />
(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
<br />
(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
<br />
'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
<br />
Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
<br />
In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
<br />
(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
<br />
(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
<br />
(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
<br />
(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
<br />
(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
<br />
(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
<br />
(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
<br />
(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
<br />
(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
<br />
(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
<br />
===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
<br />
[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
<br />
[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
<br />
[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
<br />
[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
<br />
[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
<br />
Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
<br />
===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
<br />
====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
<br />
====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
<br />
====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
<br />
====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
<br />
Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
<br />
====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
<br />
Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
<br />
Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
<br />
Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
<br />
===6. References ===<br />
Zhang Yanxin张严心.(2016). "谈文化差异背景下的英汉习语翻译策略" [On the Translation Strategies of English and Chinese Idioms in the Context of Cultural Differences]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].(S1):1-3<br />
<br />
Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
<br />
Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
<br />
Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
<br />
Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
<br />
Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
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===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
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As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
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===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
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====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
<br />
For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
<br />
===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
<br />
Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
<br />
Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
<br />
Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
<br />
===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
<br />
====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
<br />
=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
<br />
====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
<br />
Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
<br />
By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
<br />
Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
<br />
====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
<br />
Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
<br />
Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
<br />
Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
<br />
He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
<br />
① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
<br />
Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
<br />
=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
<br />
Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
<br />
====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
<br />
The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
<br />
In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
<br />
For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
<br />
Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
<br />
However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
<br />
Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
<br />
If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
<br />
Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
<br />
Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
<br />
However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
<br />
The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
<br />
===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
<br />
Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
<br />
At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
<br />
At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
<br />
Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
<br />
However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
<br />
Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
<br />
However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
<br />
===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
<br />
To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
<br />
====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
<br />
The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
<br />
When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
<br />
BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
<br />
William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
<br />
Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
<br />
Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
<br />
Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
<br />
JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
<br />
Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
<br />
Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
<br />
Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
<br />
Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
<br />
Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
<br />
Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
<br />
Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
<br />
==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
<br />
===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
<br />
2.1 The Historical Background<br />
<br />
Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
<br />
First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
<br />
We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
<br />
As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
<br />
Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2 The Social Customs <br />
<br />
Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
<br />
“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
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In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
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4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
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In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
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Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
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Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
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4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
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The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
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The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
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In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
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Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
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As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
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Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
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Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
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Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
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Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
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Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
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Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
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Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
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Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
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Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
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Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
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Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
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Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
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Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
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Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
<br />
For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
<br />
Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
<br />
===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
<br />
2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
<br />
A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
<br />
Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
<br />
2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
<br />
The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
<br />
That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
<br />
Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
<br />
3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
<br />
3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
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Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
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Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
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Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
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Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
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Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
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Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
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Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
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Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
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Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
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Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
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Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
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Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
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Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
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[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
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Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
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"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
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Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
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'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
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Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
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As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
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===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
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With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
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'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
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Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
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Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
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When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
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"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
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'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
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The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
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In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
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The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
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The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
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Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
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===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
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The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
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Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
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'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
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Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
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'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
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Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
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'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
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Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
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Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
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Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
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Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
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Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
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MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
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Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
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Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling MTI口译==<br />
<br />
<center> 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 </center><br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wu Feng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu Feng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
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Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
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Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
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2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. <br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu Feng 2008,319)<br />
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Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
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The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish（Jin Huikang 2005， 218）. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
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3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
<br />
The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world.<br />
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==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
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4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
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4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
<br />
4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
<br />
4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)<br />
<br />
Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
<br />
Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
<br />
The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
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4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1.<br />
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2005, 265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2005, 264)<br />
<br />
Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
5.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follows:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)<br />
<br />
Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
<br />
The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. <br />
<br />
Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)<br />
<br />
Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
<br />
Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
<br />
Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
<br />
Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
<br />
Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
<br />
Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
<br />
Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
<br />
Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
<br />
Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
<br />
Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
<br />
Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
<br />
Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2005). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
<br />
Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
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Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
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E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
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In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
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The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
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“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
<br />
The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
<br />
Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
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<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
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===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
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==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
<br />
Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
<br />
“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
<br />
Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
<br />
Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
. <br />
<br />
If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
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Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
<br />
Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
<br />
<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
<br />
===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
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Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
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Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
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Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
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Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
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Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
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Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
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To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
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=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
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Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
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Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
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Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
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There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
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====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
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=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
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Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
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Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
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Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
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Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
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Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
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=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
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Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
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Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
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Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
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Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
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Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
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The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
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Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
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Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118298History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T12:02:29Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory */</p>
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
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<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
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Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
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The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
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===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
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Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
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Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
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There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
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Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
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The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
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===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
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Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
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===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
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As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
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In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
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The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
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===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
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Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
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Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
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Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
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As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
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Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
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However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
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===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
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It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
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===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
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He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
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On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
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The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
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1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
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2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
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3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
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These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
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===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
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The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
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He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
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Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
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Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
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Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
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Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
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1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
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However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
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Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
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===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
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While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
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On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
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===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
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A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
<br />
An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
<br />
Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
<br />
Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
<br />
Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
<br />
In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
<br />
In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
<br />
Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
<br />
It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
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Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
<br />
顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
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张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
<br />
--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
<br />
A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
<br />
It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
<br />
Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
<br />
===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It has also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
<br />
In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
<br />
Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
<br />
From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
<br />
Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
<br />
The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
<br />
====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
<br />
Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
<br />
In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
<br />
With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
<br />
====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
<br />
====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
<br />
For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
<br />
Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
<br />
The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
<br />
It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
<br />
====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
<br />
Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
<br />
"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
<br />
Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
<br />
====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
<br />
=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
<br />
This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
<br />
In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
<br />
Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
<br />
For readers in the target country, foreignizing translation of popular works form the source language country is more likely to be accepted. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture.Therefore, when Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. <br />
<br />
With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under this background, Yang Xianyi, a Chinese translator’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. From this perspective, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
<br />
When choosing a work of the source language, the translators should consider the readers’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on different expectations of different readers. <br />
<br />
However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
<br />
====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
<br />
When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
<br />
In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
<br />
The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
<br />
The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
<br />
This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
<br />
In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
<br />
====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
<br />
====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
<br />
The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
<br />
Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
<br />
Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
<br />
It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
<br />
In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
<br />
Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
<br />
At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
<br />
The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
<br />
====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
<br />
In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
<br />
In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
<br />
Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
<br />
In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
<br />
While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
<br />
It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
<br />
If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
<br />
In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
<br />
Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
<br />
He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
<br />
Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
<br />
====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
<br />
First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
<br />
The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
<br />
Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
<br />
====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]王宁,薛晓源.全球化与后殖民批评[M].中央编译出版社, 1998.<br />
<br />
[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
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[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
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[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
<br />
[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
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[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
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Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
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Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
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Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
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Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
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The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
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Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
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Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
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====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
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Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
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Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
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At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
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Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
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===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
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The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
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====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
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The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
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=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
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Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
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林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
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黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
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他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
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This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
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=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
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Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
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黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
<br />
It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
<br />
In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
<br />
However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
<br />
In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
<br />
This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
<br />
The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
<br />
Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
<br />
7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
<br />
林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
<br />
黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
<br />
林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
<br />
黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
<br />
A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
<br />
2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
<br />
*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
<br />
That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
<br />
===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
<br />
When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
<br />
In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
<br />
Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
<br />
Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
<br />
Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
<br />
To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
<br />
In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
<br />
This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
<br />
'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
<br />
Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
<br />
In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
<br />
(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
<br />
In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
<br />
(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
<br />
So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
<br />
(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
<br />
'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
<br />
(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
<br />
(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
<br />
When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
<br />
(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
<br />
'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
<br />
Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
<br />
In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
<br />
(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
<br />
However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
<br />
(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
<br />
Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
<br />
Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
<br />
(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
<br />
'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
<br />
There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
<br />
(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
<br />
(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
<br />
Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
<br />
In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
<br />
'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
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===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
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Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
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Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
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Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
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The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
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===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
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'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
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In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
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There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
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To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
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Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
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In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
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'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
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Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
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The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
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Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
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As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
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For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
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In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
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It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
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'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
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Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
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In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
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Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
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Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
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===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
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Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
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In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
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What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
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However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
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Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
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First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
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'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
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"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
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Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
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Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
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Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
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In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
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He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
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Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
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Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
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Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
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Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
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Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
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Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
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Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
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Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
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Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
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Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
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Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
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Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
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==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
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By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
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In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
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(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
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Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
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1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
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2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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===4. Application of back translation===<br />
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Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
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Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
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There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
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The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
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===6. References===<br />
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Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
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Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
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Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
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Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
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Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
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Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
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Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
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Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
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Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
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Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
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Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
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Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
<br />
Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
<br />
Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
<br />
Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
<br />
A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
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Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
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Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
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Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
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Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
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Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
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Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
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Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
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What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
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Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
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Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
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Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
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Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
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Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
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Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
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From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
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In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
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Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
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撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
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萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
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Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
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Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
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In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
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====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
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Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
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或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
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Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
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那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
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Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
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I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
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Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
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如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
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I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
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A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
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For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
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Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
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借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
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And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
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随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
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Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
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你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
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This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
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这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
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I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
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我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
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If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
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如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
<br />
The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
<br />
===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
<br />
===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
<br />
Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
<br />
You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
<br />
(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
<br />
For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
<br />
(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
<br />
'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
<br />
First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
<br />
Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
<br />
'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
<br />
'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
<br />
For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
<br />
Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
<br />
Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
<br />
'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
<br />
What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
<br />
John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
<br />
The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
<br />
'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
<br />
The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
<br />
'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
<br />
Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
<br />
Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
<br />
Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
<br />
Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
<br />
'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
<br />
Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
<br />
The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
<br />
Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
<br />
These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
<br />
(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
<br />
(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
<br />
(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
<br />
(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
<br />
(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
<br />
(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
<br />
(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
<br />
(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
<br />
(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
<br />
(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
<br />
(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
<br />
'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
<br />
Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
<br />
In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
<br />
(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
<br />
(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
<br />
(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
<br />
(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
<br />
(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
<br />
(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
<br />
(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
<br />
(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
<br />
(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
<br />
(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
<br />
===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
<br />
[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
<br />
[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
<br />
[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
<br />
[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
<br />
[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
<br />
====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
<br />
In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
<br />
=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
<br />
The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
<br />
Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
<br />
=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
<br />
Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
<br />
Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
<br />
===6. References ===<br />
Zhang Yanxin张严心.(2016). "谈文化差异背景下的英汉习语翻译策略" [On the Translation Strategies of English and Chinese Idioms in the Context of Cultural Differences]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].(S1):1-3<br />
<br />
Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
<br />
Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
<br />
Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
<br />
Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
<br />
Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
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===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
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As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
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===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
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====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
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For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
<br />
For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
<br />
===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
<br />
Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
<br />
Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
<br />
Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
<br />
Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
<br />
Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
<br />
Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
<br />
===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
<br />
====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
<br />
=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
<br />
=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
<br />
====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
<br />
Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
<br />
By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
<br />
Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
<br />
====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
<br />
Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
<br />
Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
<br />
Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
<br />
He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
<br />
① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
<br />
③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
<br />
Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
<br />
=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
<br />
Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
<br />
====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
<br />
The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
<br />
In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
<br />
For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
<br />
Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
<br />
However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
<br />
Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
<br />
If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
<br />
Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
<br />
Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
<br />
However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
<br />
The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
<br />
===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
<br />
Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
<br />
At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
<br />
At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
<br />
Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
<br />
However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
<br />
Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
<br />
However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
<br />
===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
<br />
To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
<br />
====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
<br />
The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
<br />
When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
<br />
BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
<br />
William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
<br />
Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
<br />
Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
<br />
Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
<br />
JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
<br />
Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
<br />
Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
<br />
Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
<br />
Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
<br />
Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
<br />
Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
<br />
Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
<br />
==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
<br />
===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
<br />
2.1 The Historical Background<br />
<br />
Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
<br />
First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
<br />
We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
<br />
As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
<br />
Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2 The Social Customs <br />
<br />
Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
<br />
“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
<br />
In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
<br />
Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
<br />
In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
<br />
“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
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In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
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4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
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In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
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Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
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Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
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4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
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The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
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The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
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In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
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Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
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As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
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Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
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Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
<br />
For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
<br />
Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
<br />
===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
<br />
2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
<br />
A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
<br />
Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
<br />
2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
<br />
The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
<br />
That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
<br />
Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
<br />
3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
<br />
3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
<br />
So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
<br />
3.2 The Target Reader<br />
<br />
In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
<br />
Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
<br />
He is a modern Samson. <br />
<br />
(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
<br />
(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
<br />
Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
<br />
All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
<br />
3.3 The Text Type<br />
<br />
3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
<br />
Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
<br />
From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
<br />
=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
<br />
In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
<br />
==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
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"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
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Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
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'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
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Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
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As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
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===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
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With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
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'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
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Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
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Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
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When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
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"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
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'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
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The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
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In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
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The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
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The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
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Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
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===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
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The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
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Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
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'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
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Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
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'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
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Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
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'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
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Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
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Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
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===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
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In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
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Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
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MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
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Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
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Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling MTI口译==<br />
<br />
<center> 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 </center><br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wu Feng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu Feng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
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2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
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Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
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Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
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2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. <br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu Feng 2008,319)<br />
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Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
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The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish（Jin Huikang 2005， 218）. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
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3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
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The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world.<br />
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==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
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4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
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4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
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4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
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Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
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4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)<br />
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Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
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Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
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The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
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4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
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Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1.<br />
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2005, 265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2005, 264)<br />
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Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
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People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
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Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
5.2 Literal Translation<br />
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Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follows:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)<br />
<br />
Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
<br />
The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. <br />
<br />
Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)<br />
<br />
Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
<br />
Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
<br />
Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
<br />
Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
<br />
Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
<br />
Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
<br />
Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
<br />
Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
<br />
Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
<br />
Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
<br />
Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
<br />
Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
<br />
Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
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Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
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In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
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E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
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In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
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The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
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The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
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The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
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When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
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“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
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There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
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An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
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The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
<br />
The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
<br />
Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
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<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
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<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
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Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
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Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
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Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
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Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
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Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
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Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
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Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
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Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
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Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
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<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
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Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
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Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
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<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
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However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
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The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
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==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
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Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
<br />
Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
<br />
“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
<br />
Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
<br />
Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
. <br />
<br />
If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
<br />
Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
<br />
<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
<br />
===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
<br />
<br />
Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
<br />
The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
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Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
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Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
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Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
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Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
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Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
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Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
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To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
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Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
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Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
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Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
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There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
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====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
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Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
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Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
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Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
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Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
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Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
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Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
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Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
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Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
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Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
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The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
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Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
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Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
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Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
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Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
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Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
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Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
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Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
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Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
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Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
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Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118293History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T12:00:14Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences */</p>
<hr />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
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<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
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Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
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The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
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===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
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Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
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Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
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There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
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Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
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The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
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===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
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Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
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===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
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As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
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In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
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The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
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===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
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Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
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Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
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Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
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As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
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Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
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However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
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===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
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It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
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===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
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He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
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On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
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The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
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1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
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2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
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3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
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These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
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===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
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The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
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He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
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Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
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Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
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Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
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Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
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1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
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However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
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Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
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===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
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While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
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On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
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===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
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A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
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An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
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Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
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Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
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In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
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In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
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Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
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Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
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刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
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张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
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马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
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A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
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It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
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Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It has also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
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Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
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Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, foreignizing translation of popular works form the source language country is more likely to be accepted. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture.Therefore, when Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. <br />
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With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under this background, Yang Xianyi, a Chinese translator’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. From this perspective, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When choosing a work of the source language, the translators should consider the readers’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on different expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
<br />
In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
<br />
The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
<br />
====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
<br />
In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
<br />
In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
<br />
After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
<br />
Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
<br />
In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
<br />
While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
<br />
It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
<br />
If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
<br />
Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
<br />
Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
<br />
In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
<br />
Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
<br />
He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
<br />
Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
<br />
====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
<br />
First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
<br />
The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
<br />
Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
<br />
====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]王宁,薛晓源.全球化与后殖民批评[M].中央编译出版社, 1998.<br />
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[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
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[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
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[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
<br />
[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
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[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
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[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
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This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
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====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
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Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
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Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
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Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
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Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
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At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
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Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
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But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
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====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
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Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
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His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
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===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
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The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
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====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
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The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
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=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
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Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
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1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
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林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
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黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
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他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
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This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
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The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
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According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
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Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
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=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
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Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
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2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
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黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
<br />
2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
<br />
*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
<br />
That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
<br />
===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
<br />
When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
<br />
In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
<br />
Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
<br />
Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
<br />
Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
<br />
To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
<br />
In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
<br />
This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
<br />
'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
<br />
Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
<br />
In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
<br />
(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
<br />
In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
<br />
(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
<br />
So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
<br />
(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
<br />
'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
<br />
(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
<br />
(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
<br />
When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
<br />
(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
<br />
'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
<br />
Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
<br />
In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
<br />
(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
<br />
However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
<br />
(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
<br />
Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
<br />
Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
<br />
(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
<br />
'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
<br />
There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
<br />
(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
<br />
(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
<br />
Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
<br />
In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
<br />
'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
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The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
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Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
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As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
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For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
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In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
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It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
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'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
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Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
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In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
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Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
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Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
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===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
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Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
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In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
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What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
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However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
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Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
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First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
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'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
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"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
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Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
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Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
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Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
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In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
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He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
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Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
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Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
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Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
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Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
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Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
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Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
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Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
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Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
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Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
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Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
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==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
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By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
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In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
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(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
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Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
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1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
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2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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===4. Application of back translation===<br />
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Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
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Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
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There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
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The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
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===6. References===<br />
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Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
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Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
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Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
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Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
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Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
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Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
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Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
<br />
Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
<br />
Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
<br />
Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
<br />
好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
<br />
Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
<br />
别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
<br />
If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
<br />
By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
<br />
我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
<br />
For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
<br />
因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
<br />
All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
<br />
Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
<br />
Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
<br />
Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
<br />
Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
<br />
Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
<br />
Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
<br />
Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
<br />
In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
<br />
“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
<br />
A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
<br />
You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
<br />
Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
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Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
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====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
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During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
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Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
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Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
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Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
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Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
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===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
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On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
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On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
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===IV.References===<br />
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[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
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[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
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[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
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[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
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[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
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[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
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[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
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[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
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==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
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===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
<br />
John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
<br />
The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
<br />
Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
<br />
(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
<br />
[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
<br />
[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
<br />
[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
<br />
[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
<br />
The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
<br />
Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
<br />
=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
<br />
Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
<br />
=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
<br />
For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
<br />
In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
<br />
=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
<br />
For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
<br />
From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
<br />
Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
<br />
===6. References ===<br />
Zhang Yanxin张严心.(2016). "谈文化差异背景下的英汉习语翻译策略" [On the Translation Strategies of English and Chinese Idioms in the Context of Cultural Differences]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].(S1):1-3<br />
<br />
Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
<br />
Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
<br />
Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
<br />
Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
<br />
Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
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===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
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As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
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===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
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====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
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For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
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====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
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Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
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===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
<br />
Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
<br />
Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
<br />
Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
<br />
Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
<br />
Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
<br />
Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
<br />
===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
<br />
====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
<br />
=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
<br />
=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
<br />
====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
<br />
Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
<br />
By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
<br />
Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
<br />
====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
<br />
Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
<br />
Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
<br />
Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
<br />
He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
<br />
① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
<br />
③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
<br />
Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
<br />
=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
<br />
Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
<br />
====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
<br />
The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
<br />
In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
<br />
For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
<br />
Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
<br />
However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
<br />
Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
<br />
If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
<br />
Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
<br />
Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
<br />
However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
<br />
The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
<br />
===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
<br />
Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
<br />
At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
<br />
At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
<br />
Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
<br />
BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
<br />
William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
<br />
Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
<br />
Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
<br />
Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
<br />
JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
<br />
Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
<br />
Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
<br />
Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
<br />
Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
<br />
Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
<br />
Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
<br />
Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
<br />
==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
<br />
The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
<br />
3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
<br />
Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
<br />
When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
<br />
===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
<br />
The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
<br />
4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
<br />
When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
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In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
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4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
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The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
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Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
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Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
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Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
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Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
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Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
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Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
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Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
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Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
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Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
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=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
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1.1 Definition<br />
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The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
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1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
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There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
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Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
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Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
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Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
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Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
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Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
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Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
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He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
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他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
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‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
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1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
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Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
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Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
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With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
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1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
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For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
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Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
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Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
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Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
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Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
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Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
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Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
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Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
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Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
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Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
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Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
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Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
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Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
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Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
<br />
'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
<br />
Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
<br />
In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
<br />
'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
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Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling MTI口译==<br />
<br />
<center> 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 </center><br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wu Feng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
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旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
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==I. Introduction==<br />
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Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
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TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu Feng 2008, 319)<br />
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Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
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This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
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==II. Literature Review==<br />
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2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
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2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
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TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
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2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
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Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
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Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
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2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
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First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. <br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu Feng 2008,319)<br />
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Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
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==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
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The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
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3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
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Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish（Jin Huikang 2005， 218）. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.<br />
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3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
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Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
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3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
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The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world.<br />
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==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
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4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
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4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
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According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
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According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
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4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
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In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
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In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
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Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
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Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
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Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
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Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
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4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)<br />
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Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
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Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
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The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
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According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
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4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
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Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
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The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
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What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)<br />
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==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
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Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
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Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
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5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
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Example 1.<br />
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2006, 265-266)<br />
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Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2006, 264)<br />
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Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
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The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
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People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
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Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
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In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
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5.2 Literal Translation<br />
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Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
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Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
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In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
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Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
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Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)<br />
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Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。<br />
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Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
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Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
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The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. <br />
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Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)<br />
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The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)<br />
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In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)<br />
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Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
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==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
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Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
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Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
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Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
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Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
<br />
Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
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The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
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The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
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The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
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When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
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“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
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There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
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An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
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In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
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The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
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The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
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Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
<br />
Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
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As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
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However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
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The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
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==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
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These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
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Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
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Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
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In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
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On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
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The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
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Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
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Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
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It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
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Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
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In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
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===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
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As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
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Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
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If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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<br />
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Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
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<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
<br />
The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
<br />
Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
<br />
The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
<br />
Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
<br />
<br />
The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
<br />
The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
<br />
Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
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Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
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Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
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Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
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Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
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Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
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Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
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Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
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Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
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Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
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Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118277History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T11:56:56Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* II. Literature Review */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
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<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
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Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
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Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
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===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
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As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
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In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
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The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
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===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
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Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
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Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
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Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
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Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
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However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
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It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
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===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
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He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
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On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
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The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
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1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
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2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
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3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
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These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
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===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
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The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
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He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
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Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
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Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
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Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
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Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
<br />
1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
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However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
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Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
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===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
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While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
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On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
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===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
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A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
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An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
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Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
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Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
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In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
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In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
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A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
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It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
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Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It has also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
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Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
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Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early days of China's reform and opening up in China, some foreigners still took China as a backward image with braids and they were not interested in Chinese culture.()<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such a background, the foreign translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' by the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
<br />
====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
<br />
====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
<br />
====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
<br />
It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
<br />
If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
<br />
Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
<br />
Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
<br />
In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
<br />
Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
<br />
He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
<br />
Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
<br />
====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
<br />
First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
<br />
The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
<br />
Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
<br />
====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]王宁,薛晓源.全球化与后殖民批评[M].中央编译出版社, 1998.<br />
<br />
[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
<br />
[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
<br />
[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
<br />
[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
<br />
[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
<br />
[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
<br />
[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
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====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
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Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
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His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
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===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
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The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
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====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
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The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
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=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
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Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
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1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
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林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
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黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
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他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
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This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
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The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
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According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
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Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
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=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
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Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
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2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
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黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
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*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
<br />
That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
<br />
===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
<br />
When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
<br />
In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
<br />
Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
<br />
Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
<br />
Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
<br />
To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
<br />
In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
<br />
This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
<br />
'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
<br />
Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
<br />
In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
<br />
(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
<br />
In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
<br />
(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
<br />
So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
<br />
(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
<br />
'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
<br />
(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
<br />
(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
<br />
When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
<br />
(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
<br />
'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
<br />
Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
<br />
In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
<br />
(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
<br />
However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
<br />
(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
<br />
Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
<br />
Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
<br />
(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
<br />
'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
<br />
There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
<br />
(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
<br />
(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
<br />
Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
<br />
In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
<br />
'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
<br />
In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
<br />
He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
<br />
Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
<br />
Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
<br />
In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
<br />
'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
<br />
The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
<br />
===4. conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
<br />
That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
<br />
Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
<br />
According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
<br />
Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
<br />
There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
<br />
We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
<br />
What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
<br />
As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
<br />
Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
<br />
Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
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By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
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In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
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(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
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Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
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1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
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2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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===4. Application of back translation===<br />
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Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
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Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
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There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
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The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
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===6. References===<br />
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Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
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Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
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Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
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Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
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Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
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He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
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Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
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Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
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Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
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Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
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Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
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Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
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Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
<br />
Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
<br />
Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
<br />
Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
<br />
Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
<br />
Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
<br />
Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
<br />
Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
<br />
In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
<br />
“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
<br />
A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
<br />
You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
<br />
Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
<br />
The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
<br />
===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
<br />
"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
<br />
===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
<br />
Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
<br />
You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
<br />
For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
<br />
Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
<br />
In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
<br />
For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
<br />
===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
<br />
Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
<br />
(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
<br />
(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
<br />
For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
<br />
(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
<br />
In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
<br />
'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
<br />
First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
<br />
(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
<br />
Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
<br />
'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
<br />
'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
<br />
For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
<br />
Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
<br />
Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
<br />
'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
<br />
What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
<br />
John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
<br />
The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
<br />
'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
<br />
The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
<br />
'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
<br />
Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
<br />
Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
<br />
Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
<br />
Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
<br />
'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
<br />
Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
<br />
The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
<br />
Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
<br />
These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
<br />
(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
<br />
(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
<br />
(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
<br />
(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
<br />
(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
<br />
(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
<br />
(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
<br />
(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
<br />
(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
<br />
(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
<br />
(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
<br />
'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
<br />
=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
<br />
Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
<br />
===6. References ===<br />
Zhang Yanxin张严心.(2016). "谈文化差异背景下的英汉习语翻译策略" [On the Translation Strategies of English and Chinese Idioms in the Context of Cultural Differences]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].(S1):1-3<br />
<br />
Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
<br />
Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
<br />
Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
<br />
Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
<br />
Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
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===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
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As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
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===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
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====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
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For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
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====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
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Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
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===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
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For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
<br />
Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
<br />
Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
<br />
Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
<br />
Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
<br />
Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
<br />
Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
<br />
===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
<br />
====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
<br />
=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
<br />
=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
<br />
====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
<br />
Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
<br />
By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
<br />
Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
<br />
====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
<br />
Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
<br />
Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
<br />
Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
<br />
He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
<br />
① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
<br />
③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
<br />
Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
<br />
=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
<br />
Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
<br />
====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
<br />
The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
<br />
In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
<br />
For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
<br />
Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
<br />
However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
<br />
Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
<br />
If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
<br />
Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
<br />
Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
<br />
However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
<br />
The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
<br />
===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
<br />
Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
<br />
At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
<br />
At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
<br />
Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
<br />
However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
<br />
Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
<br />
However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
<br />
===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
<br />
To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
<br />
====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
<br />
The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
<br />
When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
<br />
BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
<br />
William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
<br />
Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
<br />
Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
<br />
Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
<br />
JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
<br />
Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
<br />
Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
<br />
Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
<br />
Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
<br />
Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
<br />
Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
<br />
Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
<br />
==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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<br />
===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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<br />
2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
<br />
===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
<br />
When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
<br />
3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
<br />
Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
<br />
Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
<br />
In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
<br />
===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
<br />
The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
<br />
4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
<br />
When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
<br />
In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
<br />
In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
<br />
Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
<br />
Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
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1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
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There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
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Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
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Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
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Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
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Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
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Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
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Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
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He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
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他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
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‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
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1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
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Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
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Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
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With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
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1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
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For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
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Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
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Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
<br />
'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
<br />
Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
<br />
In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
<br />
'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
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Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
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Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
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Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
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MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
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Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
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Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling MTI口译==<br />
<br />
<center> 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 </center><br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wu Feng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
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==关键词==<br />
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旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
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==I. Introduction==<br />
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Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
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TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu Feng 2008, 319)<br />
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Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
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This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
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==II. Literature Review==<br />
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2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
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2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
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TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
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2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
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Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
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Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
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2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
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First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. <br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu Feng 2008,319)<br />
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Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
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==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
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The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
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3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
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Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 232)<br />
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3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
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Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
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In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
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3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
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The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng Jinneng 2015,38)<br />
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==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
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4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
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4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
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According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
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According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
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4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
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In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
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In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
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Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
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Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
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Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
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Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
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4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)<br />
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Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
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Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
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The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
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According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
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4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
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Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
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The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
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What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)<br />
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==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
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Skopostheory<br />
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Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
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Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
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5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
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Example 1.<br />
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2006, 265-266)<br />
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Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2006, 264)<br />
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Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
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The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
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People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
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Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
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In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
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5.2 Literal Translation<br />
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Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
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Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
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In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
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Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)<br />
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5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
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Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
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There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)<br />
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Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。<br />
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Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
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Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
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The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. <br />
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Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)<br />
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The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)<br />
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In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)<br />
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Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
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==VI. Conclusion==<br />
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Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
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Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
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Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
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There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
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Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
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<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
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==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
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With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
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Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
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随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
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The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
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In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
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Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
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One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
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Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
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It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
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As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
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At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
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Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
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“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
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The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
<br />
The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
<br />
Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
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In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
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On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
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The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
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Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
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Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
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It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
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Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
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In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
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===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
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As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
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Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
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If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
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Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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<br />
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Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
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Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
<br />
Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
<br />
Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
<br />
Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
<br />
Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
<br />
Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118237History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T11:43:58Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* I. Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
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Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
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However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
<br />
It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
<br />
He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
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On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
<br />
The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
<br />
1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
<br />
2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
<br />
3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
<br />
4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
<br />
These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
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===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
<br />
The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
<br />
He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
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Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
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Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
<br />
Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
<br />
Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
<br />
1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
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However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
<br />
Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
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Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
<br />
===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
<br />
While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
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A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
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An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
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Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
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Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
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In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
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In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
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A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
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It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
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Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It has also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
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Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
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Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early days of China's reform and opening up in China, some foreigners still took China as a backward image with braids and they were not interested in Chinese culture.()<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such a background, the foreign translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' by the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
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However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
<br />
Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
<br />
He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
<br />
Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
<br />
====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
<br />
First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
<br />
The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
<br />
Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
<br />
====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]王宁,薛晓源.全球化与后殖民批评[M].中央编译出版社, 1998.<br />
<br />
[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
<br />
[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
<br />
[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
<br />
[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
<br />
[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
<br />
[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
<br />
[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
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Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
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1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
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林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
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黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
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他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
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This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
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The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
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According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
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Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
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=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
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Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
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2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
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黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
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*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
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*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
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*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
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*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
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*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
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*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
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*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
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*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
<br />
That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
<br />
===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
<br />
When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
<br />
In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
<br />
Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
<br />
Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
<br />
To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
<br />
In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
<br />
This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
<br />
'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
<br />
Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
<br />
In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
<br />
(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
<br />
In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
<br />
(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
<br />
So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
<br />
(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
<br />
'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
<br />
(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
<br />
(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
<br />
When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
<br />
(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
<br />
'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
<br />
Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
<br />
In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
<br />
(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
<br />
However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
<br />
(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
<br />
Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
<br />
Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
<br />
(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
<br />
'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
<br />
There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
<br />
(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
<br />
(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
<br />
Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
<br />
In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
<br />
'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
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Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
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Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
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In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
<br />
He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
<br />
Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
<br />
Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
<br />
According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
<br />
We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
<br />
If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
<br />
(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
<br />
There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
<br />
Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
<br />
Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
<br />
我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
<br />
By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
<br />
In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
<br />
(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
<br />
This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
<br />
1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
<br />
2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
===4. Application of back translation===<br />
<br />
Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
<br />
At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
<br />
Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
<br />
Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
<br />
Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
<br />
The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
<br />
Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
<br />
Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
<br />
Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
<br />
Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
<br />
In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
<br />
“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
<br />
A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
<br />
You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
<br />
Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
<br />
The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
<br />
===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
<br />
"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
<br />
===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
<br />
Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
<br />
You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
<br />
For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
<br />
Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
<br />
In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
<br />
For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
<br />
===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
<br />
Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
<br />
(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
<br />
(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
<br />
For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
<br />
(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
<br />
In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
<br />
'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
<br />
First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
<br />
(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
<br />
Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
<br />
'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
<br />
'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
<br />
For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
<br />
Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
<br />
Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
<br />
'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
<br />
What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
<br />
John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
<br />
The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
<br />
'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
<br />
The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
<br />
'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
<br />
Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
<br />
Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
<br />
Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
<br />
Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
<br />
'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
<br />
Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
<br />
The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
<br />
Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
<br />
These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
<br />
(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
<br />
(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
<br />
(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
<br />
(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
<br />
(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
<br />
(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
<br />
(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
<br />
(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
<br />
(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
<br />
(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
<br />
(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
<br />
'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
<br />
Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
<br />
In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
<br />
(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
<br />
(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
<br />
(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
<br />
(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
<br />
(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
<br />
(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
<br />
(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
<br />
(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
<br />
[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
<br />
[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
<br />
[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
<br />
[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
<br />
[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
<br />
=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
<br />
For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
<br />
From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
<br />
Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
<br />
===6. References ===<br />
Zhang Yanxin张严心.(2016). "谈文化差异背景下的英汉习语翻译策略" [On the Translation Strategies of English and Chinese Idioms in the Context of Cultural Differences]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].(S1):1-3<br />
<br />
Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
<br />
Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
<br />
Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
<br />
Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
<br />
Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
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===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
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As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
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===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
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====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
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For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
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====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
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Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
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===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
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Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
<br />
Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
<br />
Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
<br />
Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
<br />
Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
<br />
Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
<br />
Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
<br />
===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
<br />
====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
<br />
=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
<br />
=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
<br />
====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
<br />
Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
<br />
By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
<br />
Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
<br />
====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
<br />
Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
<br />
Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
<br />
Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
<br />
He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
<br />
① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
<br />
③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
<br />
Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
<br />
=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
<br />
Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
<br />
====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
<br />
The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
<br />
In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
<br />
For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
<br />
Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
<br />
However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
<br />
Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
<br />
If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
<br />
Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
<br />
Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
<br />
However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
<br />
The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
<br />
===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
<br />
Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
<br />
At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
<br />
At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
<br />
Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
<br />
However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
<br />
Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
<br />
However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
<br />
===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
<br />
To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
<br />
====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
<br />
The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
<br />
When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
<br />
BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
<br />
William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
<br />
Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
<br />
Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
<br />
JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
<br />
Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
<br />
Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
<br />
Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
<br />
Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
<br />
Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
<br />
Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
<br />
Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
<br />
==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
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In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
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4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
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In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
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Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
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Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
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4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
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The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
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The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
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In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
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Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
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As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
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Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
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Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
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Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
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Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
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=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
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=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
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The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
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=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
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Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
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Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
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The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
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There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
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This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
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=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
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1.1 Definition<br />
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The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
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1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
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There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
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Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
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Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
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Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
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Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
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Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
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He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
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他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
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‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
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1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
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Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
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Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
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With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
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1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
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For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
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Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
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Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
<br />
'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
<br />
Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
<br />
In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
<br />
'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
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===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
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'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
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The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
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===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
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The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
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Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
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'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
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Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
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In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
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===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
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Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
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Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
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Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
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MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
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Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
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Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
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==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling MTI口译==<br />
<br />
<center> 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 </center><br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wu Feng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
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==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu Feng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
<br />
Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
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Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
<br />
2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng Jinneng 2015, 203)<br />
<br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wufeng 2008,319)<br />
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Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 204)<br />
<br />
Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
<br />
The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 232)<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
<br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
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3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
<br />
The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng Jinneng 2015,38)<br />
<br />
==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
<br />
4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
<br />
4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
<br />
4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
<br />
4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)<br />
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Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
<br />
Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
<br />
The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
<br />
4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1.<br />
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2006, 265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2006, 264)<br />
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Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
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People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
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5.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
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Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)<br />
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Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
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The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. <br />
<br />
Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)<br />
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Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
<br />
Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
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Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
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Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
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Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
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Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
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随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
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The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
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In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
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Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
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One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
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Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
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It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
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Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
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As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
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At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
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Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
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Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
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In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
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E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
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In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
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The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
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The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
<br />
“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
<br />
The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
<br />
Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
<br />
Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
. <br />
<br />
If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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<br />
Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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<br />
<br />
Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
<br />
Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
<br />
Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118234History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T11:43:05Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* Abstract */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
<br />
Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
<br />
However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
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It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
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He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
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On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
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The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
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1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
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2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
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3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
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These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
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===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
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The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
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He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
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Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
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Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
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Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
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Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
<br />
1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
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However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
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Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
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===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
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While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
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On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
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===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
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A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
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An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
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Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
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Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
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In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
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In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
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A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
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It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
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Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It has also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
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Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
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Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early days of China's reform and opening up in China, some foreigners still took China as a backward image with braids and they were not interested in Chinese culture.()<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such a background, the foreign translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' by the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
<br />
This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
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In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Jiang Xiaohua. 蒋骁华. (2003). 《圣经》汉译及其对汉语的影响. [The Chinese Translation of the Bible and Its Influence on Chinese]. ''外语教学与研究:外国语文双月刊'' [Foreign Language Teaching and Research: Foreign Language Bimonthly] 4: 301-305.<br />
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Li Zheng. 李征 & Zhang Chunbo. 张春柏.(2015).“异化”的翻译与民族文化丰富和发展——重读施莱尔马赫的翻译思想. [The Translation of "Foreignization" and the Enrichment and Development of National Culture——Rereading Schleiermacher's Translation Thoughts]. ''学术探索''[Academic Exploration] (06),134-138. <br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
<br />
====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
<br />
====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
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The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
<br />
====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]王宁,薛晓源.全球化与后殖民批评[M].中央编译出版社, 1998.<br />
<br />
[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
<br />
[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
<br />
[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
<br />
[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
<br />
[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
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=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
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Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
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2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
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黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
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Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
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That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
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===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
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'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
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When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
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In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
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'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
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===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
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Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
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In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
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Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
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'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
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To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
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In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
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===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
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This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
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'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
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(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
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Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
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In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
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(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
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In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
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(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
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So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
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'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
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(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
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When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
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(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
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'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
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(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
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Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
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In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
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(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
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However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
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Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
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Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
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(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
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'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
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(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
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There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
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(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
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- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
<br />
Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
<br />
In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
<br />
'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
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In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
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He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
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Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
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Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
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Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
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Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
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Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
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Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
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Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
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Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
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<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
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By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
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In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
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(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
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Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
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1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
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2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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===4. Application of back translation===<br />
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Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
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Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
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There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
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The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
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===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
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Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
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Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
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A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
<br />
Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
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John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
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The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
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(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
<br />
As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
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Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
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Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
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Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
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Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
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===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
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====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
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=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
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====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
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Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
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By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
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Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
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====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
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Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
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He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
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① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
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Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
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=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
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Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
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The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
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In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
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For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
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For example:<br />
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Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
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Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
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However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
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Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
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If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
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Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
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Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
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Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
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However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
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The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
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===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
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Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
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===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
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Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
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Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
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William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
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Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
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Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
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JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
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Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
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Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
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Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
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Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
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Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
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Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
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Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
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Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
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==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
<br />
In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
<br />
Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
<br />
Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
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Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
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MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
<br />
Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
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Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling MTI口译==<br />
<br />
<center> 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 </center><br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wu Feng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wufeng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
<br />
Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
<br />
Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
<br />
2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng Jinneng 2015, 203)<br />
<br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wufeng 2008,319)<br />
<br />
Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 204)<br />
<br />
Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
<br />
The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 232)<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
<br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
<br />
The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng Jinneng 2015,38)<br />
<br />
==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
<br />
4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
<br />
4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
<br />
4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
<br />
4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)<br />
<br />
Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
<br />
Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
<br />
The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
<br />
4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1.<br />
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2006, 265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2006, 264)<br />
<br />
Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
5.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)<br />
<br />
Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
<br />
The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. <br />
<br />
Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)<br />
<br />
Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
<br />
Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
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Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
<br />
Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
<br />
Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
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In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
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Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
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“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
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There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
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An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
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The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
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The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
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Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
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Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
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Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
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Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
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If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
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Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
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Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
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Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
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<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118231History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T11:42:36Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
<br />
Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
<br />
However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
<br />
It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
<br />
He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
<br />
The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
<br />
1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
<br />
2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
<br />
3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
<br />
These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
<br />
===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
<br />
The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
<br />
He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
<br />
Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
<br />
Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
<br />
Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
<br />
Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
<br />
1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
<br />
Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
<br />
Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
<br />
===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
<br />
While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
<br />
A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
<br />
An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
<br />
Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
<br />
Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
<br />
In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
<br />
In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
<br />
顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
<br />
张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
<br />
A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
<br />
It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
<br />
Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It has also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
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Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
<br />
Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
<br />
====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early days of China's reform and opening up in China, some foreigners still took China as a backward image with braids and they were not interested in Chinese culture.()<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such a background, the foreign translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' by the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
<br />
This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
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In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Li Zheng. 李征 & Zhang Chunbo. 张春柏.(2015).“异化”的翻译与民族文化丰富和发展——重读施莱尔马赫的翻译思想. [The Translation of "Foreignization" and the Enrichment and Development of National Culture——Rereading Schleiermacher's Translation Thoughts]. ''学术探索''[Academic Exploration] (06),134-138. <br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
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====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
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The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
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[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
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[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
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[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
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[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
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[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
<br />
Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
<br />
林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
<br />
黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
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Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
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That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
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This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
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===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
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'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
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When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
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In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
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'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
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===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
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Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
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In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
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Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
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'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
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To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
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In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
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===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
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This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
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'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
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(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
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Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
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In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
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(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
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In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
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(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
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So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
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'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
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(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
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When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
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(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
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'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
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(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
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Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
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In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
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(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
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However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
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Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
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Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
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(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
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'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
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(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
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There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
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(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
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- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
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===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
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Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
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'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
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In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
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'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
<br />
In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
<br />
He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
<br />
By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
<br />
In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
<br />
(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
<br />
1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
<br />
2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
===4. Application of back translation===<br />
<br />
Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
<br />
Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
<br />
The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
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A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
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Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
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John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
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The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
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(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
<br />
As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
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Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
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Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
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Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
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Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
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===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
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====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
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=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
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====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
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Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
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By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
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Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
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====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
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Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
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He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
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① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
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Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
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=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
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Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
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The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
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In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
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For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
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For example:<br />
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Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
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Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
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However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
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Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
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If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
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Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
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Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
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Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
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However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
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The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
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===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
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Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
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===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
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Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
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Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
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William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
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Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
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Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
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JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
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Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
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Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
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Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
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Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
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Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
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Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
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Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
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Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
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==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
<br />
In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
<br />
Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
<br />
Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
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MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
<br />
Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
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Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling MTI口译==<br />
<br />
<center> 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 </center><br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wufeng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wufeng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
<br />
Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
<br />
Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
<br />
2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng Jinneng 2015, 203)<br />
<br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wufeng 2008,319)<br />
<br />
Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 204)<br />
<br />
Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
<br />
The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 232)<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
<br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
<br />
The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng Jinneng 2015,38)<br />
<br />
==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
<br />
4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
<br />
4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
<br />
4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
<br />
4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)<br />
<br />
Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
<br />
Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
<br />
The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
<br />
4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1.<br />
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2006, 265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2006, 264)<br />
<br />
Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
5.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)<br />
<br />
Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
<br />
The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. <br />
<br />
Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)<br />
<br />
Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
<br />
Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
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Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
<br />
Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
<br />
Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
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In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
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Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
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“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
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There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
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An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
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The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
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The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
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Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
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Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
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Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
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Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
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If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
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Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
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Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
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Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
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<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118223History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T11:39:04Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
<br />
Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
<br />
However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
<br />
It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
<br />
He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
<br />
The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
<br />
1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
<br />
2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
<br />
3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
<br />
These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
<br />
===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
<br />
The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
<br />
He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
<br />
Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
<br />
Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
<br />
Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
<br />
Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
<br />
1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
<br />
Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
<br />
Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
<br />
===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
<br />
While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
<br />
A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
<br />
An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
<br />
Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
<br />
Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
<br />
In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
<br />
In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
<br />
顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
<br />
张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
<br />
A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
<br />
It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
<br />
Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It has also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
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Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
<br />
Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
<br />
====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early days of China's reform and opening up in China, some foreigners still took China as a backward image with braids and they were not interested in Chinese culture.()<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such a background, the foreign translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' by the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
<br />
This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
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In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Li Zheng. 李征 & Zhang Chunbo. 张春柏.(2015).“异化”的翻译与民族文化丰富和发展——重读施莱尔马赫的翻译思想. [The Translation of "Foreignization" and the Enrichment and Development of National Culture——Rereading Schleiermacher's Translation Thoughts]. ''学术探索''[Academic Exploration] (06),134-138. <br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
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====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
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The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
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[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
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[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
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[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
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[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
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[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
<br />
Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
<br />
林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
<br />
黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
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Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
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That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
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This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
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===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
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'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
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When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
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In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
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'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
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===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
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Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
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In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
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Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
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'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
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To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
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In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
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===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
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This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
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'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
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(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
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Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
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In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
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(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
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In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
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(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
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So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
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'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
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(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
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When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
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(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
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'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
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(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
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Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
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In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
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(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
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However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
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Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
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Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
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(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
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'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
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(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
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There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
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(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
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- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
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===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
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Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
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'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
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In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
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'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
<br />
In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
<br />
He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
<br />
By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
<br />
In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
<br />
(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
<br />
1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
<br />
2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
===4. Application of back translation===<br />
<br />
Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
<br />
Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
<br />
The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
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A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
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Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
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John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
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The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
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(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
<br />
As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
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Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
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Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
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Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
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Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
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===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
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====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
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=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
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====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
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Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
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By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
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Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
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====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
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Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
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He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
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① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
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Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
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=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
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Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
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The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
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In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
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For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
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For example:<br />
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Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
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Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
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However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
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Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
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If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
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Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
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Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
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Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
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However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
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The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
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===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
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Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
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===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
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Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
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Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
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William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
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Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
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Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
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JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
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Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
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Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
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Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
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Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
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Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
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Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
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Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
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Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
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==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
<br />
In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
<br />
Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
<br />
Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
<br />
MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
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Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647(按照中国语言文化格式命名，将名字拼音、学号和专业跟标题放一起)<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wufeng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wufeng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
<br />
Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
<br />
Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
<br />
2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng Jinneng 2015, 203)<br />
<br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wufeng 2008,319)<br />
<br />
Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 204)<br />
<br />
Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
<br />
The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 232)<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
<br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
<br />
The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng Jinneng 2015,38)<br />
<br />
==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
<br />
4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
<br />
4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
<br />
4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
<br />
4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)<br />
<br />
Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
<br />
Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
<br />
The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
<br />
4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1.<br />
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2006, 265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2006, 264)<br />
<br />
Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)<br />
<br />
Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
5.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)<br />
<br />
Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
<br />
The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. <br />
<br />
Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)<br />
<br />
Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
<br />
Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
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Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
<br />
Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
<br />
Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
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In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
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Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
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“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
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There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
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An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
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The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
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The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
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Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
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Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
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Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
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Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
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If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
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Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
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Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
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Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
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<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118208History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T11:31:10Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
<br />
Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
<br />
However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
<br />
It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
<br />
He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
<br />
The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
<br />
1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
<br />
2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
<br />
3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
<br />
These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
<br />
===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
<br />
The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
<br />
He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
<br />
Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
<br />
Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
<br />
Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
<br />
Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
<br />
1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
<br />
Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
<br />
Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
<br />
===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
<br />
While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
<br />
A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
<br />
An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
<br />
Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
<br />
Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
<br />
In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
<br />
In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
<br />
A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
<br />
It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
<br />
Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome. It can be seen as the embryonic form of literal translation, which has influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
<br />
Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice.(Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early days of China's reform and opening up in China, some foreigners still took China as a backward image with braids and they were not interested in Chinese culture.()<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such a background, the foreign translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' by the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
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In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Li Zheng. 李征 & Zhang Chunbo. 张春柏.(2015).“异化”的翻译与民族文化丰富和发展——重读施莱尔马赫的翻译思想. [The Translation of "Foreignization" and the Enrichment and Development of National Culture——Rereading Schleiermacher's Translation Thoughts]. ''学术探索''[Academic Exploration] (06),134-138. <br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
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====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
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The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
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[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
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[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
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[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
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[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
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[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
<br />
Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
<br />
林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
<br />
黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
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Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
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That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
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This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
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===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
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'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
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When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
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In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
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'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
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===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
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Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
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In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
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Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
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'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
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To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
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In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
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===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
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This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
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'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
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(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
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Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
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In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
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(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
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In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
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(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
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So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
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'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
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(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
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When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
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(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
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'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
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(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
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Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
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In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
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(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
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However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
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Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
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Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
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(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
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'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
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(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
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There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
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(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
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- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
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===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
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Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
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'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
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In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
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'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
<br />
In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
<br />
He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
<br />
By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
<br />
In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
<br />
(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
<br />
1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
<br />
2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
===4. Application of back translation===<br />
<br />
Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
<br />
Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
<br />
The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
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A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
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Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
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John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
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The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
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(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
<br />
As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
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Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
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Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
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Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
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Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
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===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
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====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
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=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
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====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
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Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
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By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
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Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
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====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
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Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
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He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
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① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
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Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
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=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
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Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
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The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
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In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
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For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
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For example:<br />
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Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
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Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
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However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
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Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
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If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
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Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
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Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
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Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
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However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
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The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
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===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
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Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
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===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
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Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
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Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
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William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
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Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
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Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
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JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
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Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
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Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
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Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
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Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
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Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
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Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
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Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
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Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
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==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
<br />
In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
<br />
Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
<br />
Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
<br />
MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
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Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647(按照中国语言文化格式命名，将名字拼音、学号和专业跟标题放一起)<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wufeng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wufeng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
<br />
Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
<br />
Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
<br />
2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng Jinneng 2015, 203)<br />
<br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wufeng 2008,319)<br />
<br />
Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 204)<br />
<br />
Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
<br />
The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 232)<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
<br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
<br />
The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng Jinneng 2015,38)<br />
<br />
==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
<br />
4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
<br />
4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
<br />
4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
<br />
4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)<br />
<br />
Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
<br />
Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
<br />
The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
<br />
4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1. 党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin, 2006, P265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin, 2006, 264)<br />
<br />
Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu, 2007,133)<br />
<br />
People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu, 2007: 133)<br />
<br />
Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
5.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 酸辣汤 Hot and Sour Soup<br />
老醋蜇头 Jellyfish with Black Vinegar <br />
砂锅排骨Stewed Spare Ribs in Casserole<br />
三鲜海参 See Cucumber with Three Delicacies (Cheng, 2015,234)<br />
<br />
In this menu, literal translation is used because essential information has been given and there is not much special culture contents. Under this circumstance, literal translation will not lead to misunderstanding among target readers. (Cheng, 2015:234)<br />
<br />
Example 5. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang, 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 6. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang, 2014, 60)<br />
<br />
Example 7. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。(Wu, 2008,342) <br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
<br />
The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. (Wu, 2008, 342)<br />
<br />
Example 8. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu, 1958,285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao, 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao, 2001: 340)<br />
<br />
Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang, 2014,56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
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Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
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Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
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Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
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Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
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In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
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Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
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“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
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There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
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An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
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The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
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The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
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Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
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Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
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Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
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Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
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If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
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Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
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Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
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Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
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<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118204History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T11:29:08Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
<br />
Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
<br />
However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
<br />
It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
<br />
He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
<br />
The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
<br />
1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
<br />
2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
<br />
3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
<br />
These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
<br />
===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
<br />
The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
<br />
He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
<br />
Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
<br />
Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
<br />
Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
<br />
Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
<br />
1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
<br />
Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
<br />
Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
<br />
===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
<br />
While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
<br />
A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
<br />
An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
<br />
Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
<br />
Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
<br />
In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
<br />
In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
<br />
A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
<br />
It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
<br />
Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome. It can be seen as the embryonic form of literal translation, which has influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
<br />
Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice.(Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early days of China's reform and opening up in China, some foreigners still took China as a backward image with braids and they were not interested in Chinese culture.()<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such a background, the foreign translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' by the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
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In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Li Zheng. 李征 & Zhang Chunbo. 张春柏.(2015).“异化”的翻译与民族文化丰富和发展——重读施莱尔马赫的翻译思想. [The Translation of "Foreignization" and the Enrichment and Development of National Culture——Rereading Schleiermacher's Translation Thoughts]. ''学术探索''[Academic Exploration] (06),134-138. <br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
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====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
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The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
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[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
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[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
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[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
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[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
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[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
<br />
Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
<br />
林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
<br />
黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
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Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
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That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
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This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
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===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
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'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
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When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
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In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
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'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
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===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
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Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
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In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
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Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
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'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
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To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
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In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
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===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
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This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
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'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
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(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
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Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
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In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
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(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
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In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
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(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
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So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
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'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
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(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
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When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
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(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
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'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
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(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
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Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
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In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
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(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
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However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
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Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
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Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
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(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
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'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
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(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
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There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
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(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
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- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
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===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
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Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
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'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
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In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
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'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
<br />
In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
<br />
He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
<br />
By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
<br />
In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
<br />
(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
<br />
1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
<br />
2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
===4. Application of back translation===<br />
<br />
Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
<br />
Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
<br />
The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
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A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
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Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
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John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
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The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
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(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
<br />
As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
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Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
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Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
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Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
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Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
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===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
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====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
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=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
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====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
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Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
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By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
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Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
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====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
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Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
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He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
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① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
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Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
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=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
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Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
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The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
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In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
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For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
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For example:<br />
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Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
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Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
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However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
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Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
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If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
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Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
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Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
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Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
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However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
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The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
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===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
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Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
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===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
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Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
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Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
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William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
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Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
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Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
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JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
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Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
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Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
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Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
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Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
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Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
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Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
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Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
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Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
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==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
<br />
In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
<br />
Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
<br />
Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
<br />
MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
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Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647(按照中国语言文化格式命名，将名字拼音、学号和专业跟标题放一起)<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wufeng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wufeng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
<br />
Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
<br />
Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
<br />
2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng Jinneng 2015, 203)<br />
<br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wufeng 2008,319)<br />
<br />
Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 204)<br />
<br />
Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
<br />
The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 232)<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
<br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
<br />
The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng Jinneng 2015,38)<br />
<br />
==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
<br />
4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer, 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
<br />
4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber, 1983,12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
<br />
4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul, 2005,37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord, 2005,10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss, 2004,32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer, 2000,228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari, 2001,35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord, 2005,16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord (Nord, 2001,197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord, 2001,125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
<br />
4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu, 2008,28)<br />
<br />
Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
<br />
Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
<br />
The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
<br />
4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng, 2008,30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang, 2014,5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang, 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1. 党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin, 2006, P265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin, 2006, 264)<br />
<br />
Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu, 2007,133)<br />
<br />
People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu, 2007: 133)<br />
<br />
Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
5.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 酸辣汤 Hot and Sour Soup<br />
老醋蜇头 Jellyfish with Black Vinegar <br />
砂锅排骨Stewed Spare Ribs in Casserole<br />
三鲜海参 See Cucumber with Three Delicacies (Cheng, 2015,234)<br />
<br />
In this menu, literal translation is used because essential information has been given and there is not much special culture contents. Under this circumstance, literal translation will not lead to misunderstanding among target readers. (Cheng, 2015:234)<br />
<br />
Example 5. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang, 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 6. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang, 2014, 60)<br />
<br />
Example 7. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。(Wu, 2008,342) <br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
<br />
The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. (Wu, 2008, 342)<br />
<br />
Example 8. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu, 1958,285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao, 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao, 2001: 340)<br />
<br />
Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang, 2014,56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
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Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
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Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
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Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
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Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
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In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
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Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
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“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
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There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
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An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
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The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
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The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
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Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
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Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
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Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
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Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
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If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
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Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
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Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
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Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
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<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118196History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T11:27:05Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* II. Literature Review */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
<br />
Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
<br />
However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
<br />
It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
<br />
He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
<br />
The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
<br />
1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
<br />
2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
<br />
3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
<br />
These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
<br />
===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
<br />
The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
<br />
He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
<br />
Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
<br />
Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
<br />
Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
<br />
Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
<br />
1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
<br />
Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
<br />
Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
<br />
===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
<br />
While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
<br />
A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
<br />
An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
<br />
Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
<br />
Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
<br />
In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
<br />
In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
<br />
A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
<br />
It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
<br />
Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome. It can be seen as the embryonic form of literal translation, which has influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
<br />
Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice.(Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early days of China's reform and opening up in China, some foreigners still took China as a backward image with braids and they were not interested in Chinese culture.()<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such a background, the foreign translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' by the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
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In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Li Zheng. 李征 & Zhang Chunbo. 张春柏.(2015).“异化”的翻译与民族文化丰富和发展——重读施莱尔马赫的翻译思想. [The Translation of "Foreignization" and the Enrichment and Development of National Culture——Rereading Schleiermacher's Translation Thoughts]. ''学术探索''[Academic Exploration] (06),134-138. <br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
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====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
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The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
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[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
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[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
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[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
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[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
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[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
<br />
Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
<br />
林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
<br />
黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
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Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
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That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
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This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
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===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
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'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
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When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
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In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
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'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
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===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
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Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
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In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
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Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
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'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
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To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
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In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
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===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
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This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
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'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
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(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
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Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
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In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
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(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
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In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
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(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
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So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
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'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
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(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
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When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
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(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
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'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
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(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
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Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
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In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
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(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
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However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
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Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
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Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
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(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
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'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
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(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
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There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
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(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
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- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
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===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
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Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
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'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
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In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
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'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
<br />
In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
<br />
He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
<br />
By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
<br />
In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
<br />
(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
<br />
1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
<br />
2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
===4. Application of back translation===<br />
<br />
Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
<br />
Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
<br />
The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
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A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
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Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
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John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
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The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
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(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
<br />
As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
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Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
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Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
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Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
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Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
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===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
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====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
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=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
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====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
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Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
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By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
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Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
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====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
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Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
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He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
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① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
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Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
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=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
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Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
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The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
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In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
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For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
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For example:<br />
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Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
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Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
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However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
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Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
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If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
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Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
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Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
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Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
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However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
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The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
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===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
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Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
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===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
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Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
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Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
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William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
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Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
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Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
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JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
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Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
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Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
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Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
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Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
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Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
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Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
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Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
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Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
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==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
<br />
In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
<br />
Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
<br />
Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
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Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
<br />
MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
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Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647(按照中国语言文化格式命名，将名字拼音、学号和专业跟标题放一起)<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wufeng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wufeng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:<br />
<br />
Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)<br />
<br />
Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)<br />
<br />
2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng Jinneng 2015, 203)<br />
<br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wufeng 2008,319)<br />
<br />
Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng Jinneng 2015, 204)<br />
<br />
Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
<br />
The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu, 2000,58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng, 2015,232)<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
<br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
<br />
The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng, 2015,38)<br />
<br />
==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
<br />
4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer, 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
<br />
4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber, 1983,12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
<br />
4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul, 2005,37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord, 2005,10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss, 2004,32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer, 2000,228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari, 2001,35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord, 2005,16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord (Nord, 2001,197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord, 2001,125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
<br />
4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu, 2008,28)<br />
<br />
Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
<br />
Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
<br />
The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
<br />
4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng, 2008,30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang, 2014,5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang, 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1. 党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin, 2006, P265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin, 2006, 264)<br />
<br />
Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu, 2007,133)<br />
<br />
People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu, 2007: 133)<br />
<br />
Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
5.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 酸辣汤 Hot and Sour Soup<br />
老醋蜇头 Jellyfish with Black Vinegar <br />
砂锅排骨Stewed Spare Ribs in Casserole<br />
三鲜海参 See Cucumber with Three Delicacies (Cheng, 2015,234)<br />
<br />
In this menu, literal translation is used because essential information has been given and there is not much special culture contents. Under this circumstance, literal translation will not lead to misunderstanding among target readers. (Cheng, 2015:234)<br />
<br />
Example 5. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang, 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 6. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang, 2014, 60)<br />
<br />
Example 7. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。(Wu, 2008,342) <br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
<br />
The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. (Wu, 2008, 342)<br />
<br />
Example 8. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu, 1958,285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao, 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao, 2001: 340)<br />
<br />
Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang, 2014,56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
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Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
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Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
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Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
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Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
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In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
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Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
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“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
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There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
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An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
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The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
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Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
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The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
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The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
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Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
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Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
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Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
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Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
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If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
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Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
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Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
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Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
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<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118176History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T11:21:27Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* I. Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
<br />
Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
<br />
However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
<br />
It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
<br />
He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
<br />
The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
<br />
1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
<br />
2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
<br />
3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
<br />
These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
<br />
===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
<br />
The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
<br />
He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
<br />
Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
<br />
Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
<br />
Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
<br />
Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
<br />
1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
<br />
Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
<br />
Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
<br />
===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
<br />
While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
<br />
A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
<br />
An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
<br />
Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
<br />
Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
<br />
In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
<br />
In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
<br />
A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
<br />
It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
<br />
Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome. It can be seen as the embryonic form of literal translation, which has influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
<br />
Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
<br />
The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice.(Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early days of China's reform and opening up in China, some foreigners still took China as a backward image with braids and they were not interested in Chinese culture.()<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such a background, the foreign translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' by the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
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In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Li Zheng. 李征 & Zhang Chunbo. 张春柏.(2015).“异化”的翻译与民族文化丰富和发展——重读施莱尔马赫的翻译思想. [The Translation of "Foreignization" and the Enrichment and Development of National Culture——Rereading Schleiermacher's Translation Thoughts]. ''学术探索''[Academic Exploration] (06),134-138. <br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
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====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
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The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
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[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
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[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
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[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
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[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
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[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
<br />
Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
<br />
林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
<br />
黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
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Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
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That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
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This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
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===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
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'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
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When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
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In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
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'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
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===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
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Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
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In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
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Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
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'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
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To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
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In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
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===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
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This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
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'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
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(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
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Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
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In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
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(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
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In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
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(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
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So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
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'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
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(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
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When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
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(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
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'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
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(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
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Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
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In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
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(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
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However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
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Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
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Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
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(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
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'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
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(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
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There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
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(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
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- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
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===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
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Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
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'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
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In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
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'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
<br />
In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
<br />
He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
<br />
By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
<br />
In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
<br />
As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
<br />
(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
<br />
1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
<br />
2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
===4. Application of back translation===<br />
<br />
Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
<br />
Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
<br />
The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
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A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
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Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
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John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
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The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
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(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
<br />
As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
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Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
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Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
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Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
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Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
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===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
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====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
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=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
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====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
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Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
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By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
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Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
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====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
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Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
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He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
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① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
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Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
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=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
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Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
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The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
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In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
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For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
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For example:<br />
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Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
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Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
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However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
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Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
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If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
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Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
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Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
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Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
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However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
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The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
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===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
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Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
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===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
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Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
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Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
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William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
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Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
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Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
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JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
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Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
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Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
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Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
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Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
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Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
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Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
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Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
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Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
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==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
<br />
In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
<br />
Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
<br />
Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
<br />
Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
<br />
MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
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Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647(按照中国语言文化格式命名，将名字拼音、学号和专业跟标题放一起)<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wufeng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wufeng 2008, 319)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding, 2008,14)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and '''which''' areas.(加入了 which这个词)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents,newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang, 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, reports etc. They are equipped with features as follow:<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other '''types''' (加s)of text, for example news, document, reports etc. They are equipped with features as follows(加s):--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture convention, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding, 2008,1)<br />
<br />
Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture '''conventions'''(加s), food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding, 2008,1)'''(引用要用作者全名)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
'''<br />
Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding, 2008,16)<br />
<br />
2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
<br />
First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng, 2015,203)<br />
<br />
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu, 2008,319)<br />
<br />
Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng, 2015,204)<br />
<br />
Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
<br />
==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
<br />
The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu, 2000,58). <br />
<br />
3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
<br />
Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng, 2015,232)<br />
<br />
3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
<br />
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
<br />
The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng, 2015,38)<br />
<br />
==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
<br />
4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer, 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
<br />
4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
<br />
According to Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
<br />
According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber, 1983,12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
<br />
4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
<br />
In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul, 2005,37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
<br />
In Nord’s (Nord, 2005,10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss (Reiss, 2004,32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
<br />
Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer, 2000,228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
<br />
Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari, 2001,35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord, 2005,16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord (Nord, 2001,197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord, 2001,125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
<br />
4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu, 2008,28)<br />
<br />
Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
<br />
Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
<br />
The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
<br />
4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng, 2008,30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang, 2014,5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
<br />
What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang, 2014, 5)<br />
<br />
==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
<br />
Skopostheory<br />
<br />
Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
<br />
Example 1. 党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin, 2006, P265-266)<br />
<br />
Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin, 2006, 264)<br />
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Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
<br />
The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu, 2007,133)<br />
<br />
People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu, 2007: 133)<br />
<br />
Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
<br />
5.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
<br />
Example 4. 酸辣汤 Hot and Sour Soup<br />
老醋蜇头 Jellyfish with Black Vinegar <br />
砂锅排骨Stewed Spare Ribs in Casserole<br />
三鲜海参 See Cucumber with Three Delicacies (Cheng, 2015,234)<br />
<br />
In this menu, literal translation is used because essential information has been given and there is not much special culture contents. Under this circumstance, literal translation will not lead to misunderstanding among target readers. (Cheng, 2015:234)<br />
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Example 5. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
<br />
In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
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Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang, 2014, 53)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
<br />
Example 6. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
<br />
<br />
There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang, 2014, 60)<br />
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Example 7. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。(Wu, 2008,342) <br />
<br />
Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
<br />
Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
<br />
The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. (Wu, 2008, 342)<br />
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Example 8. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu, 1958,285)<br />
<br />
The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao, 2001,340)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao, 2001: 340)<br />
<br />
Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang, 2014,56)<br />
<br />
==VI. Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
<br />
Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
<br />
Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
<br />
There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
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Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
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Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
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Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
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Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
<br />
Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
<br />
“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
<br />
The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
<br />
Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
<br />
Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
. <br />
<br />
If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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<br />
Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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<br />
<br />
Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
<br />
Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
<br />
Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118165History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T11:18:42Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* Abstract */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
<br />
Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
<br />
However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
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It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
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He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
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On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
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The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
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1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
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2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
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3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
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These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
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===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
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The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
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He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
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Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
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Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
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Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
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Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
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1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
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However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
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Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
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===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
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While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
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On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
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===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
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A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
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An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
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Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
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Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
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In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
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In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
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A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
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It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
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Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome. It can be seen as the embryonic form of literal translation, which has influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
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Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
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Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice.(Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early days of China's reform and opening up in China, some foreigners still took China as a backward image with braids and they were not interested in Chinese culture.()<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such a background, the foreign translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' by the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
<br />
This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
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In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Jiang Xiaohua. 蒋骁华. (2003). 《圣经》汉译及其对汉语的影响. [The Chinese Translation of the Bible and Its Influence on Chinese]. ''外语教学与研究:外国语文双月刊'' [Foreign Language Teaching and Research: Foreign Language Bimonthly] 4: 301-305.<br />
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Li Zheng. 李征 & Zhang Chunbo. 张春柏.(2015).“异化”的翻译与民族文化丰富和发展——重读施莱尔马赫的翻译思想. [The Translation of "Foreignization" and the Enrichment and Development of National Culture——Rereading Schleiermacher's Translation Thoughts]. ''学术探索''[Academic Exploration] (06),134-138. <br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
<br />
====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
<br />
====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
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The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
<br />
====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]王宁,薛晓源.全球化与后殖民批评[M].中央编译出版社, 1998.<br />
<br />
[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
<br />
[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
<br />
[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
<br />
[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
<br />
[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
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=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
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Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
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2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
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黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
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Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
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That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
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===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
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'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
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When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
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In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
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'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
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===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
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Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
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In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
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Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
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'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
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To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
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In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
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===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
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This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
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'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
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(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
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Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
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In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
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(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
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In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
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(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
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So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
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'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
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(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
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When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
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(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
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'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
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(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
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Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
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In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
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(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
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However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
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Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
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Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
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(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
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'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
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(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
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There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
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(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
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- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
<br />
Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
<br />
In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
<br />
'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
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In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
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He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
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Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
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Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
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Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
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Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
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Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
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Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
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Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
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Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
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<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
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By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
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In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
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(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
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Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
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1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
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2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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===4. Application of back translation===<br />
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Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
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Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
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There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
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The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
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===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
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Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
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Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
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A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
<br />
Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
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John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
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The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
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(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
<br />
As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
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Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
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Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
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Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
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Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
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===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
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====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
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=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
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====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
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Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
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By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
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Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
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====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
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Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
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He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
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① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
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Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
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=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
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Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
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The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
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In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
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For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
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For example:<br />
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Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
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Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
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However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
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Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
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If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
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Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
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Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
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Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
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However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
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The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
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===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
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Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
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===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
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Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
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Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
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William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
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Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
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Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
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JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
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Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
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Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
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Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
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Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
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Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
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Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
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Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
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Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
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==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
<br />
In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
<br />
Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
<br />
Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
<br />
Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
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MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
<br />
Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647(按照中国语言文化格式命名，将名字拼音、学号和专业跟标题放一起)<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wufeng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang, 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) play increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
conomic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang, 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu, 2008, 319)'''(引用格式：姓名年份，页码)'''--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding, 2008,14)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and '''which''' areas.(加入了 which这个词)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents,newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang, 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, reports etc. They are equipped with features as follow:<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other '''types''' (加s)of text, for example news, document, reports etc. They are equipped with features as follows(加s):--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture convention, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding, 2008,1)<br />
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Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture '''conventions'''(加s), food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding, 2008,1)'''(引用要用作者全名)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
'''<br />
Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding, 2008,16)<br />
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2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
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First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng, 2015,203)<br />
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Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu, 2008,319)<br />
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Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng, 2015,204)<br />
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Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
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==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
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The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu, 2000,58). <br />
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3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
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Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng, 2015,232)<br />
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3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
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Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
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In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
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3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
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The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng, 2015,38)<br />
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==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
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4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer, 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
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4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
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According to Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
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According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber, 1983,12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
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4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
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In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul, 2005,37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
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In Nord’s (Nord, 2005,10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
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Katharina Reiss (Reiss, 2004,32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
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Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer, 2000,228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
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Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari, 2001,35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord, 2005,16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
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Christiane Nord (Nord, 2001,197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord, 2001,125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
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4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu, 2008,28)<br />
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Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
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Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
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The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
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According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
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4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
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Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng, 2008,30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
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The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang, 2014,5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
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What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang, 2014, 5)<br />
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==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
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Skopostheory<br />
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Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
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Susan Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
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5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
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Example 1. 党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin, 2006, P265-266)<br />
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Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin, 2006, 264)<br />
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Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
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The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu, 2007,133)<br />
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People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu, 2007: 133)<br />
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Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
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In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
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5.2 Literal Translation<br />
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Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
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Example 4. 酸辣汤 Hot and Sour Soup<br />
老醋蜇头 Jellyfish with Black Vinegar <br />
砂锅排骨Stewed Spare Ribs in Casserole<br />
三鲜海参 See Cucumber with Three Delicacies (Cheng, 2015,234)<br />
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In this menu, literal translation is used because essential information has been given and there is not much special culture contents. Under this circumstance, literal translation will not lead to misunderstanding among target readers. (Cheng, 2015:234)<br />
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Example 5. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
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In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
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Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang, 2014, 53)<br />
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5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
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Example 6. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
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There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang, 2014, 60)<br />
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Example 7. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。(Wu, 2008,342) <br />
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Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
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Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
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The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. (Wu, 2008, 342)<br />
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Example 8. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu, 1958,285)<br />
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The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao, 2001,340)<br />
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In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao, 2001: 340)<br />
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Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang, 2014,56)<br />
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==VI. Conclusion==<br />
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Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
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Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
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Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
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There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
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==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
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Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
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Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
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Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
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Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
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==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
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==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
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With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
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Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
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随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
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In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
<br />
Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
<br />
“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
<br />
The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
<br />
Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
<br />
Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
. <br />
<br />
If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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<br />
Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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<br />
<br />
Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
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Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
<br />
Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
<br />
Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=118155History of Translation Studies 72020-12-21T11:15:59Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* Abstract */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
<br />
The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
<br />
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
<br />
There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
<br />
The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
<br />
Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
<br />
As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
<br />
In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
<br />
The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
<br />
Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
<br />
Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
<br />
Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
<br />
As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
<br />
Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
<br />
However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
<br />
===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
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It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
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He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
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On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
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The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
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1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
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2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
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3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
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These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
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===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
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The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
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He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
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Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
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Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
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Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
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Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
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1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
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However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
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Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
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===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
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While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
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On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
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===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
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A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
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An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
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Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.<br />
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Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
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In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
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In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
<br />
Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
<br />
刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
<br />
张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
<br />
马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
异化翻译；民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015) <br />
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A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) <br />
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It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. <br />
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Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome. It can be seen as the embryonic form of literal translation, which has influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator, had a rich view of literal translation: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)<br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning:" If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
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Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
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Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put on the agenda of translation studies in Lawrence Venuti's famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)<br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43) <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)<br />
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Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373) <br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)<br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the transalted text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice.(Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early days of China's reform and opening up in China, some foreigners still took China as a backward image with braids and they were not interested in Chinese culture.()<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such a background, the foreign translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' by the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. However, on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people do about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century, the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept through France. They all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand its true spirit." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
<br />
This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in terms of literature, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. Almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore,in terms of content and genre, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty all present unprecedented and brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt and Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. (Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 08:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can only develop if people has an open-mind and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, the greater the openness of the culture is, the more vigorous the development will be, the stronger the absorption will be, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation will be. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
<br />
However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, but lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.(Reference)--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
<br />
In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
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In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Jiang Xiaohua. 蒋骁华. (2003). 《圣经》汉译及其对汉语的影响. [The Chinese Translation of the Bible and Its Influence on Chinese]. ''外语教学与研究:外国语文双月刊'' [Foreign Language Teaching and Research: Foreign Language Bimonthly] 4: 301-305.<br />
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Li Zheng. 李征 & Zhang Chunbo. 张春柏.(2015).“异化”的翻译与民族文化丰富和发展——重读施莱尔马赫的翻译思想. [The Translation of "Foreignization" and the Enrichment and Development of National Culture——Rereading Schleiermacher's Translation Thoughts]. ''学术探索''[Academic Exploration] (06),134-138. <br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. <br />
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The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
<br />
====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.<br />
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According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. <br />
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Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.<br />
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What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. <br />
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The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.<br />
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Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.<br />
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It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. <br />
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The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.<br />
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Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "<br />
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At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.<br />
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The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.<br />
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Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.<br />
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In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.<br />
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It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. <br />
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If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. <br />
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Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.<br />
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In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. <br />
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He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. <br />
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Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
<br />
====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. <br />
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The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. <br />
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Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
<br />
====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]王宁,薛晓源.全球化与后殖民批评[M].中央编译出版社, 1998.<br />
<br />
[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
<br />
[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
<br />
[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
<br />
[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
<br />
[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
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[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
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[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. <br />
<br />
Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。<br />
<br />
笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71) <br />
<br />
In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)<br />
<br />
The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
<br />
These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80) <br />
<br />
With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)<br />
<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127) <br />
<br />
The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）<br />
<br />
Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）<br />
<br />
But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）<br />
<br />
His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
<br />
1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75） <br />
<br />
The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)<br />
<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64) <br />
<br />
Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
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=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
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Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
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2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
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黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81) <br />
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Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)<br />
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It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)<br />
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Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)<br />
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These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40) <br />
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However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
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5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
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林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
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黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
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This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33) <br />
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This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
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In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32) <br />
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In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
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====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
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British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
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=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
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A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
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6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
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林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
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黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
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In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
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Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84) <br />
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The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
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Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
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=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
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Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
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7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
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林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
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黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
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The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
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From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
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8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
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林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
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黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
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A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
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Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
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Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1) <br />
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Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123) <br />
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2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
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*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
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Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
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That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
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===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
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'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
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When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
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In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
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'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
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Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
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===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
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Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
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In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
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Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
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'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
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Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
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To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
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In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
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===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
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This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
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'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
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(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
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Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
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In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
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(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
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In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
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(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
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So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
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'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
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(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
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When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
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(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
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'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
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(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
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Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
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In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
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(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
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However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
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Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
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Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
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(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
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'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
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(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
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There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
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(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
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- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
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-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
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-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
<br />
Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
<br />
In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
<br />
'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
<br />
*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
<br />
Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)<br />
<br />
===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)<br />
<br />
To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)<br />
<br />
In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
<br />
Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
<br />
The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
<br />
As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
<br />
In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)<br />
<br />
===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
<br />
Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
<br />
What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
<br />
However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)<br />
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In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
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He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
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Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)<br />
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Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)<br />
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The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)<br />
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===4. conclusion===<br />
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From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
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Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
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Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
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Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
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Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
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Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
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Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
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Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
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<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
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===1. Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
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Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) <br />
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Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
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According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. <br />
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Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
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===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
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There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
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Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. <br />
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We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)<br />
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What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
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===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===<br />
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As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
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====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
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Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45) <br />
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Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
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====3.2 Back translation in texts====<br />
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Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
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If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
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(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
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Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
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(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
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Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
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There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation) <br />
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Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
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By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10) <br />
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In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
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(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
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Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
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1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
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2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)<br />
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By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
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===4. Application of back translation===<br />
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Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. <br />
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Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. <br />
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There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) <br />
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The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)<br />
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===6. References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
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Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
<br />
Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
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Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
<br />
Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) <br />
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From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)<br />
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Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
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It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)<br />
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These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. <br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
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Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
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Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
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Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
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好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
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Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
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别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
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If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
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赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
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By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
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For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
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因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
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All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
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Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
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Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
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Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
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Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
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Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
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Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
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In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
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Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
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Liang’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
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Zhu’s version:<br />
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夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
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In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
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“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）<br />
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A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
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You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
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那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)<br />
<br />
Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. <br />
<br />
What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.<br />
<br />
In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
<br />
If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).<br />
<br />
Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. <br />
<br />
Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.<br />
<br />
[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press]. <br />
<br />
[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51. <br />
<br />
[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].<br />
<br />
[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].<br />
<br />
[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.<br />
<br />
[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.<br />
<br />
[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
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The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
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"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
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===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
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'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
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(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
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For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
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Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
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Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
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'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
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John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
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The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
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'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
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The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
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'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
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Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
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Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
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Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
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Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
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The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
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Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)<br />
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These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
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(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
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(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
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(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
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(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
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(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
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For example:<br />
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(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
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(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
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(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
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(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
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(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
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(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
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(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
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'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
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Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
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In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
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(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
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(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
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(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
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(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
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(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
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(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
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(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
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(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
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(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
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(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
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(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
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===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
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===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
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[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
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[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
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[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
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[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
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[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
===1.1 Research Background===<br />
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08) <br />
<br />
As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Research Significance===<br />
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====2.3 Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====2.4 Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
<br />
Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
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For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
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===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
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Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.<br />
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Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
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Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.<br />
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Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
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Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
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Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
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Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
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Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.<br />
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--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
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===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
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====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
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=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).<br />
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=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).<br />
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====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
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Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
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Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
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By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
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Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).<br />
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====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45). <br />
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Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
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Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
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He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
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① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
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③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
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When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
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Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
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=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
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It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
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Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
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The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
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In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
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For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
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For example:<br />
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Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
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Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
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However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
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Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
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If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
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Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
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Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。<br />
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Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
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However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.<br />
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The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
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===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
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Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
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The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
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Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
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However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
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Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
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However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
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===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
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Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
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To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).<br />
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====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
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The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
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When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
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===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
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Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
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Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
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William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
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Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
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Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
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Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
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JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
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Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
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Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
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Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
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Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
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Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
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Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
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Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
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Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
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==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia 202020080662==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
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We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). <br />
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As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). <br />
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Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
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2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
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“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
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In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. <br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
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Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
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Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
<br />
In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.<br />
<br />
Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
<br />
The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
<br />
Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
<br />
As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) 翻译:思考与试笔 [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). 探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响 [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
<br />
Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). 浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响 [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
<br />
Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). 从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略 [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
<br />
Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
<br />
Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
<br />
Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). 从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象 [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
<br />
Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).思维模式与翻译［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
<br />
Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
<br />
Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
<br />
Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
<br />
Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
<br />
=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
<br />
=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
<br />
The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
<br />
This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
<br />
Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
<br />
Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
<br />
Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
<br />
1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
<br />
Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
<br />
Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
<br />
Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
<br />
He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
<br />
他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
<br />
‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
<br />
1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
<br />
Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
<br />
Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
<br />
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
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===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
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2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
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In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
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Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
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===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
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3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
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3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
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=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
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==''' References'''==<br />
<br />
Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.<br />
<br />
Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.<br />
<br />
Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.<br />
<br />
Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.<br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.<br />
<br />
Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
<br />
Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
<br />
[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
<br />
Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014). <br />
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===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
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===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
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'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
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Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
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In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
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'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)<br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.<br />
<br />
Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)<br />
<br />
Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)<br />
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Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.<br />
<br />
Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.<br />
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Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.<br />
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MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).<br />
<br />
Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.<br />
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Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647(按照中国语言文化格式命名，将名字拼音、学号和专业跟标题放一起)<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wufeng, 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
==Key Words== <br />
<br />
TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
<br />
旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
==I. Introduction==<br />
<br />
Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang, 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) play increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
<br />
conomic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang, 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu, 2008, 319)'''(引用格式：姓名年份，页码)'''--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
==II. Literature Review==<br />
<br />
2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding, 2008,14)<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and '''which''' areas.(加入了 which这个词)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents,newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang, 2014, 3)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, reports etc. They are equipped with features as follow:<br />
<br />
As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other '''types''' (加s)of text, for example news, document, reports etc. They are equipped with features as follows(加s):--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture convention, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding, 2008,1)<br />
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Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture '''conventions'''(加s), food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding, 2008,1)'''(引用要用作者全名)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
'''<br />
Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding, 2008,16)<br />
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2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
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First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng, 2015,203)<br />
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Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu, 2008,319)<br />
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Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng, 2015,204)<br />
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Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
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==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
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The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu, 2000,58). <br />
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3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
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Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng, 2015,232)<br />
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3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
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Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
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In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
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3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
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The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng, 2015,38)<br />
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==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
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4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer, 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
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4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
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According to Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
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According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber, 1983,12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
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4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
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In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul, 2005,37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
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In Nord’s (Nord, 2005,10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
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Katharina Reiss (Reiss, 2004,32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
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Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer, 2000,228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
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Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari, 2001,35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord, 2005,16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
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Christiane Nord (Nord, 2001,197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord, 2001,125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
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4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu, 2008,28)<br />
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Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
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Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
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The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
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According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
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4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
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Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng, 2008,30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
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The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang, 2014,5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
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What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang, 2014, 5)<br />
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==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
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Skopostheory<br />
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Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
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Susan Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
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5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
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Example 1. 党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin, 2006, P265-266)<br />
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Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin, 2006, 264)<br />
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Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
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The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu, 2007,133)<br />
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People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu, 2007: 133)<br />
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Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
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In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
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5.2 Literal Translation<br />
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Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
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Example 4. 酸辣汤 Hot and Sour Soup<br />
老醋蜇头 Jellyfish with Black Vinegar <br />
砂锅排骨Stewed Spare Ribs in Casserole<br />
三鲜海参 See Cucumber with Three Delicacies (Cheng, 2015,234)<br />
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In this menu, literal translation is used because essential information has been given and there is not much special culture contents. Under this circumstance, literal translation will not lead to misunderstanding among target readers. (Cheng, 2015:234)<br />
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Example 5. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
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In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
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Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang, 2014, 53)<br />
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5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
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Example 6. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
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There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang, 2014, 60)<br />
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Example 7. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。(Wu, 2008,342) <br />
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Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
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Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
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The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. (Wu, 2008, 342)<br />
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Example 8. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu, 1958,285)<br />
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The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao, 2001,340)<br />
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In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao, 2001: 340)<br />
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Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang, 2014,56)<br />
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==VI. Conclusion==<br />
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Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
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Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
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Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
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There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
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==References==<br />
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge<br />
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Nida E. A. & Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Reiss K. Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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Vermeer H. J. A Framework for a General Theory of Translating[M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学<br />
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Vermeer H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge <br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社<br />
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Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社<br />
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Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
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Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》<br />
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Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社<br />
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Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2006). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社<br />
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
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==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
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==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
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With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
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Functional equivalence; corporate publicity texts; translation methods--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
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随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts play an important role in corporate international publicity. Its translation has become a significant bridge connecting different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and cultures. Corporate publicity texts are different from other types because of the unique lexical and syntactic features. The study of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on styles, registration of corporate or functional grammar. Although the study started late, fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently put more effort to the study in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies. However, the results of the study are relatively limited. There is few systematic and theoretical study and few comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present in China, domestic study on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop the study in depth, and how to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of corporate publicity texts based on Nida's functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects, lexical level and syntactic level. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and study. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
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In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
One way of defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as "the natural equivalence of the source language information" .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our study. They are closest, natural, and equivalent. The word "equivalent" here should not be understood as the meaning of "identity", but should only be understood as the meaning of"close". Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor’s "response" rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term "equivalent", Nida recommends to make the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language, the term "natural" means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns of the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida uses the term "closest" to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word "closest" should be analyzed in two different ways, linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the form and meaning "closest" to the original texts. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source <br />
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
<br />
Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence translation is receptor-oriented and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largestly qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on"the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made." All of these factors can produce qualified translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, which allows for a wide variety of translations. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As it is mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate publicity text is reflected in the recommendation of corporates and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the corporate, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then promote the corporate among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the corporate and have confidence in the company's products. The similar response of readers is what Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the target language users. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the corporate publicity materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a corporate publicity text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guiding thoery and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese corporates, more and more corporates are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to create a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce translation with high quality, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find their differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics, that is pursuing the aethestic word and abusing the "flowers of speech"; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader's reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers not only a view of beautiful language and strong momentum, but also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
<br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of corporate competition, and its function is to promote the corporate, recommend its products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the corporate, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and catchy, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression on customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g: "The core concept of a company' s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远' ." "至诚无息,博厚悠远"源自《中庸》,原文是"故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆"(Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the "sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching". These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China's petrochemical corporate culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of "发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工" and reaffirm the corporate spirit of "爱我中华,振兴石化". Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of "精细严谨,务实创新" and establish the business philosophy of "诚信规范,合作共赢", and comprehensively promoted the development of company's corporate culture. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of indirect thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the corporate. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the corporate and the products of the corporate to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: "澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma's development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader's goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the indirect thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the corporate. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
<br />
“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the corporate as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the corporate. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then are more trustful. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion's official website: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion's publicity texts often refer to the corporate as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
China's socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned corporates in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual corporates are also an important part of the socialist marketing economy with Chinese characteristics and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned corporates, private corporates and individual corporates play a guiding role in China's economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the corporate, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the corporate. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic corporates have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of corporate competition, and winning the trust of customers.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of "Party Construction" advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party's guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party's leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the corporate. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their target readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the simplicity by using common and simple vocabulary which is easy to read and can meet the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the corporate propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and the corporate, making it easy for corporates to reach their customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart's slogan "Have money, Live better". It not only reflects Wal-Mart's business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer's psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron's official website: "We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it." The "care about and are proud of" in the sentence explain the company's efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: "Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences." The familiar vocabularies of "mutual", "fresh" and "varied" in the sentence embody the closeness of the corporate. Among them, "fresh" and "varied" highlight the company's continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then explaining them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce corporates in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
<br />
The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the corporate. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, make the company and customers communicate closer , which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: "Chevron is one of the world's leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products" --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example uses "us", "we" to call the corporate, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence shortened the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the corporate.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company's products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer's mind. Therefore, it focus on its history, the performance and future development trend, rather than the ideology and political ownership of the company. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM's corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies' introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and corporates of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011) --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company's excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as "safety and Quality" and "Create Lifelong Customers" appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer's mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers' reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, it is believed that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
<br />
Cultural deficit is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural deficit or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: "863计划" "The Match 1986" "Program to stimulate the development of high technologies" "三讲" "the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity"--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some unnecessary information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: "昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。" "As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by."--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a "check-in seat". It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be "designed and meticulously reconstructed". It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: "把国家电网公司建设成为"电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀"的现代公司。" "To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. " "我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。" These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as "金鸡奖" translated as "JinJi Award"或 "the Golden Rooster Award", The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as "China's Oscar". The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: "鸳鸯", "lovebird" , "龙舟", "dragon boat" , "公积金", "public accumulation fund" , "梁祝", "China's Romeo and Juliet" , "七彩云南", "7-Colored Yunnan", "汉文化", "the Han Culture", "中原", "Zhongyuan", "the central plains" , and "鱼米之乡", "a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey"等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with both source language and target language, and strive to become an expert of the language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is "to let other countries and people in the world understand China", and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability of transforming different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017，189). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015，104). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015，37).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006，60)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020，70)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to. <br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]． 现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, <br />
<br />
* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.<br />
<br />
* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.<br />
<br />
* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yang Fan杨帆 (2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An analysis of English translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the perspective of functional equivalence theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.<br />
<br />
* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04):60.<br />
<br />
* Zhai Zihui翟子惠 Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).<br />
<br />
The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63). <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).<br />
<br />
==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62). <br />
<br />
The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).<br />
<br />
However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).<br />
<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).<br />
<br />
==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).<br />
<br />
Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).<br />
<br />
Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98). <br />
<br />
In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63). <br />
<br />
<br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52). <br />
<br />
The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32). <br />
<br />
===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====<br />
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. <br />
<br />
<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).<br />
<br />
In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).<br />
<br />
===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
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Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
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“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).<br />
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Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).<br />
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Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38). <br />
<br />
Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).<br />
. <br />
<br />
If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.<br />
<br />
<br />
Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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<br />
Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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<br />
<br />
Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. <br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
<br />
Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.<br />
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Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
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<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
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====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)<br />
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To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
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The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
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The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
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=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
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Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
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Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
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Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
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Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
<br />
Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
<br />
Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
<br />
Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
<br />
Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
<br />
Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
<br />
Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
<br />
Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Resistancy_Translation_Strategy%97Lawrence_Venuti.ppt&diff=1171642020-12-21T03:01:23Z<p>Yang Ziling: </p>
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<div></div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Resistancy_Translation_Strategy%97Lawrence_Venuti1.ppt&diff=1171622020-12-21T02:59:58Z<p>Yang Ziling: </p>
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<div></div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=116084History of Translation Studies 32020-12-19T16:54:24Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 摘 要 */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br />
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br />
<br />
==Key words==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br />
<br />
==(1)Introduction==<br />
<br />
===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
<br />
===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
<br />
Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
<br />
Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
<br />
Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
<br />
==II.Similarities and Differences==<br />
<br />
===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
<br />
While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
<br />
'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
<br />
Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
<br />
Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
<br />
In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
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However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br />
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Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
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'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
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In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
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Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
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'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
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'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
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'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
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Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
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Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
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'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
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First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
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In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
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'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
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'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
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Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
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Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
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Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
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'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
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Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
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Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
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Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
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'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
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There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
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'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
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Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
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Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br />
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Bibliography：<br />
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[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
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[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br />
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[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br />
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[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br />
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[6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br />
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[7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br />
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[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br />
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[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br />
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[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br />
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[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br />
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=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br />
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'''摘要'''<br />
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近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br />
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br />
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br />
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'''Key words'''<br />
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br />
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'''Introduction'''<br />
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'''Research background'''<br />
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Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
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'''Significance of the study'''<br />
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By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
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This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
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'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
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'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
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'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
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The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
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Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
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“总统的史学家......”<br />
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It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
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From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br />
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Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
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It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
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'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
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This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br />
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Example：“车来了！”<br />
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“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
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The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
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It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
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'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br />
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'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
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The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
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The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
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The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br />
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The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
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'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
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Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
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'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
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In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
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'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
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In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
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''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
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Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
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Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
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无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
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If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
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'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
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Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
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Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
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这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
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This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br />
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'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
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Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
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Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
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OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
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农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
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开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
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The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br />
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There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
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'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
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This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
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'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
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The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
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German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
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'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
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Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
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But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
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'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
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Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
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Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
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'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
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'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
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The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
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Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
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'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
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Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
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'''Conclusion''' <br />
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By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
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'''Bibliography'''<br />
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Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London & New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br />
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Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br />
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Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br />
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Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br />
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陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br />
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范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br />
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李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br />
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张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br />
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张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br />
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张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br />
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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==<br />
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'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
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'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
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'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
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Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
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'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
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The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br />
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'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
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'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br />
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Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
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(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br />
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“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br />
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In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br />
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From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
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S: “white as snow”<br />
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T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
<br />
Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br />
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(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br />
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On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
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'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
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According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
<br />
The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br />
<br />
'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br />
<br />
[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br />
<br />
[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br />
<br />
[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br />
<br />
[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br />
<br />
[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br />
<br />
[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br />
<br />
[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br />
<br />
[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br />
<br />
=Theory and Practise=<br />
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
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'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br />
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'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br />
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'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br />
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'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br />
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A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
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So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
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From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
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'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
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A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
<br />
According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
<br />
“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br />
<br />
In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
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(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
<br />
(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
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Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
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B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
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Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
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C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
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Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
<br />
Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
<br />
Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
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D.Venuti<br />
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Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
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“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
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Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br />
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Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br />
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To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br />
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II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
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A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
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In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
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Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
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Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
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From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
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江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
<br />
江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
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Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
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他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
<br />
他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
<br />
(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
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Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
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The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
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顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
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Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
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Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
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Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
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B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br />
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In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
<br />
Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
<br />
In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
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Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br />
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Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
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So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
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Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
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回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
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The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
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(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
<br />
“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
<br />
(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
<br />
The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br />
<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
<br />
刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
<br />
许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
=Contemporary Translation Studies=<br />
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
<br />
'''Introduction:'''<br />
<br />
In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
<br />
Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br />
<br />
“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
<br />
In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br />
<br />
In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br />
<br />
“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br />
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
<br />
However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
<br />
Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br />
<br />
Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br />
<br />
Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br />
<br />
Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br />
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
<br />
Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br />
<br />
The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
<br />
It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br />
<br />
Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
<br />
It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
<br />
Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
<br />
<br />
'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
<br />
Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
<br />
'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
<br />
Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br />
<br />
'''Conclusion:'''<br />
<br />
All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Works Cited'''<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br />
<br />
Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br />
<br />
Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br />
<br />
Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br />
<br />
Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br />
<br />
Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br />
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br />
<br />
Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br />
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br />
<br />
'''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br />
<br />
奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br />
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Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''"dynamic equivalence" and "reader's response theory"''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br />
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Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''"'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''"''' (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''"'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''"''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br />
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In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''"Nida Phenomenon"'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br />
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Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
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This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
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This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br />
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The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br />
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'''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br />
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Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br />
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Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br />
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2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br />
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3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br />
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3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br />
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4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br />
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In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br />
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Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br />
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===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br />
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As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br />
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As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br />
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The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br />
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Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br />
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The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br />
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1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br />
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'''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br />
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====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br />
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The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br />
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1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br />
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2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br />
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3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br />
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====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br />
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The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br />
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Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br />
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====Summary====<br />
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According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br />
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As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br />
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'''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br />
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It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br />
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=====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br />
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=====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br />
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Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br />
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Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br />
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=====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br />
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After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br />
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The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br />
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Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
<br />
From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br />
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However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br />
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Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. (2015). 政府公文英译浅析新编奈达论翻译 [On the English Translation of Government Documents].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(06): 81-87.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida & Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br />
<br />
Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br />
<br />
Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br />
<br />
Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br />
<br />
Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br />
<br />
Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br />
<br />
Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br />
<br />
Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&魏向清&赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br />
<br />
Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br />
<br />
Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br />
<br />
Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br />
<br />
Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br />
<br />
Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br />
<br />
Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br />
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Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br />
<br />
Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br />
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Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br />
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Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br />
<br />
Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br />
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Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong.张美芳&钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能"概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br />
<br />
'''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br />
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==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br />
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===摘要=== <br />
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br />
<br />
Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br />
<br />
Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br />
<br />
Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br />
<br />
From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
<br />
<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br />
<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br />
<br />
<br />
However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br />
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====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br />
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Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br />
<br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br />
<br />
ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br />
<br />
Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br />
<br />
The Pre-research Period<br />
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From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br />
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From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
The Experimental Psychology Period<br />
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From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br />
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From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br />
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The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The Renewal Period<br />
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It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
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It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br />
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Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br />
<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br />
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Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br />
<br />
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br />
<br />
The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
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====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br />
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The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br />
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During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s<br />
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Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br />
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During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century<br />
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With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br />
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br />
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During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br />
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The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br />
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From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br />
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And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br />
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At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br />
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Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br />
<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br />
<br />
Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br />
<br />
Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br />
*【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br />
*【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
*【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br />
*【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
*【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br />
<br />
==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br />
<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br />
<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br />
<br />
This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br />
<br />
===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br />
<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.<br />
<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br />
<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br />
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br />
<br />
The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br />
<br />
As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br />
<br />
The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br />
<br />
His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br />
<br />
After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br />
<br />
It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br />
<br />
In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br />
<br />
The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br />
<br />
In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win). <br />
<br />
It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br />
<br />
Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br />
<br />
The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
<br />
At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons." <br />
<br />
The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br />
<br />
Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br />
<br />
===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br />
<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br />
<br />
All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br />
<br />
The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br />
<br />
Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br />
<br />
"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br />
<br />
===IV.Conclusion===<br />
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br />
<br />
Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br />
<br />
Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br />
<br />
Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br />
<br />
Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br />
<br />
Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br />
<br />
Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br />
<br />
Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br />
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br />
===题目===<br />
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br />
<br />
===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br />
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br />
<br />
He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br />
<br />
In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br />
<br />
In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br />
<br />
When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br />
<br />
As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br />
<br />
Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br />
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br />
<br />
It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br />
<br />
Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br />
<br />
Examples of homophonic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br />
<br />
There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br />
<br />
Examples of homographic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br />
<br />
There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br />
<br />
Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br />
<br />
Examples of palindrome:<br />
<br />
Example 7:<br />
*Madam，I’ m Adam.<br />
*No x in Nixon.<br />
*上海自来水来自海上。<br />
<br />
These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br />
<br />
Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br />
<br />
The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br />
<br />
Example 8:<br />
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br />
<br />
From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br />
<br />
2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br />
<br />
Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br />
<br />
Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br />
<br />
The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 9:<br />
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br />
<br />
*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br />
<br />
*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br />
<br />
*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br />
<br />
The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br />
<br />
Example 10:<br />
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br />
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br />
<br />
The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 11:<br />
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br />
<br />
*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br />
<br />
*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br />
<br />
*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br />
<br />
These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br />
<br />
All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br />
<br />
All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br />
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br />
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br />
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br />
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br />
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br />
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r ><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br />
<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br />
<br />
Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br />
<br />
For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br />
<br />
In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br />
<br />
In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
<br />
In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br />
<br />
=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br />
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br />
=== 1.1Color === <br />
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br />
=== 1.1.1Red=== <br />
<br />
Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
<br />
In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
<br />
In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br />
<br />
For example, what we say in Chinese "红茶" is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
=== 1.1.2Yellow=== <br />
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Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br />
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.3Green=== <br />
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br />
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So in Chinese "envy" or "against the pink eye" in English should be green - eyed, "red eye" in the Chinese into English in the "green eyes", and if it is translated into "red - eyed" that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical "jealous" in English is called "pink eyes". In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means "new person," while a greenhorn means "someone with no experience" or "someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs."(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.2Animal=== <br />
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br />
=== 1.2.1Dog=== <br />
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br />
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br />
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br />
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br />
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br />
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br />
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br />
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7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br />
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br />
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9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br />
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10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br />
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br />
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br />
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br />
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br />
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br />
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br />
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br />
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br />
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br />
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br />
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
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=== 1.2.2Dragon=== <br />
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br />
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br />
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br />
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br />
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br />
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Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.Coping Strategies=== <br />
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br />
=== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br />
=== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br />
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br />
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Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br />
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Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br />
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
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In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br />
=== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br />
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br />
=== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br />
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
=== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br />
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br />
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===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br />
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Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br />
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br />
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Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance". <br />
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Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of "If you are the hypeone" in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause "You can rest assured" was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret "lawful assistance" directly as "giving you guidance".--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br />
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ". <br />
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And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br />
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Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br />
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Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br />
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Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.<br />
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Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br />
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Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br />
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Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese "Meaning association". However, English attaches great importance to "speech and communication", and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.<br />
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On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br />
<br />
In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br />
<br />
*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br />
<br />
*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br />
<br />
*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br />
<br />
<br />
*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br />
--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br />
<br />
<br />
<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br />
<br />
Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br />
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Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br />
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===2.1 Ideology===<br />
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Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br />
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Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2.2 Poetics===<br />
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Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br />
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According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===2.3 Patronage===<br />
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Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br />
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Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br />
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Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===3.Cases Study===<br />
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===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br />
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Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
<br />
Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br />
English version: Hewlett and Packard<br />
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br />
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br />
<br />
Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br />
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br />
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) <br />
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In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
(Act II, Scene IV)<br />
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br />
To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br />
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br />
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br />
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br />
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Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br />
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br />
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
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Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br />
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br />
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br />
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br />
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br />
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br />
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br />
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br />
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br />
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br />
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br />
(Act I, Scene I)<br />
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br />
I would prefer him to a better place.<br />
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br />
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br />
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Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
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Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br />
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Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.<br />
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Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br />
<br />
Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.<br />
<br />
Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.<br />
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Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.<br />
<br />
Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.<br />
<br />
Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.<br />
<br />
==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br />
<br />
<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br />
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===题目===<br />
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br />
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===摘要===<br />
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br />
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===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br />
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br />
Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br />
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Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br />
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====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br />
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br />
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Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br />
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All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
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===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br />
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br />
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）''' <br />
Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br />
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According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br />
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====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br />
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''<br />
Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br />
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According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''<br />
next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br />
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Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br />
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The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. <br />
In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br />
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It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br />
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====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br />
It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br />
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===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br />
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''<br />
As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br />
<br />
Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''<br />
It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br />
<br />
Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br />
<br />
Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br />
<br />
Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br />
<br />
Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called "zero translation", is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Equivalence====<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Shifts====<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Limits of Translatability====<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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(2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
(1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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(3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br />
<br />
==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br />
'''<br />
Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
'''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and is presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauties Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformations Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purposes Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblances Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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The "Three-Beauties Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound." Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggested: "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
"Three-Resemblance" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Three-Resemblances Theory" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences in languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu employed the math equation to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblances" as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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"Three-Transformations Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauties Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformations Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
<br />
Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
<br />
Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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"Three-Purposes Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauties Theory", "Three-Resemblances Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauties Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauties Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauties Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformations Theory", "Three-Purposes Theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he points out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformations Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauties theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformations Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purposes Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
<br />
Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
<br />
Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.” <br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
<br />
摘要前面格式注意：姓名学号居中写--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' (这样空格) Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. （空格）From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. （句点） It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.(句点)（Zhang Delu 2009,15）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. （空格）Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. （这句话除了开头单词首字母，其他单词首字母都要小写）Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, to media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. (空格)Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br />
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In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. （句点） It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br />
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Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun 2017,40)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br />
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The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br />
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Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017,42)）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017,43)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun 2017,44)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun 2017,45)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun 2017,46）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. （插入照片） <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）(插入照片)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br />
<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,89)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,91)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,92)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,93)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br />
<br />
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear删掉. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology, (1):22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br />
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Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly, (2):191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br />
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李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br />
Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
<br />
摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br />
中西文化史比较<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br />
<br />
Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br />
<br />
The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br />
<br />
The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br />
<br />
The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
<br />
After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br />
<br />
==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br />
<br />
The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)<br />
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)<br />
<br />
The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
<br />
The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br />
<br />
The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br />
<br />
When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br />
<br />
In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
<br />
Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Difference==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
<br />
There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)<br />
<br />
The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
<br />
*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
<br />
*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=116082History of Translation Studies 32020-12-19T16:52:24Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* Conclusion */</p>
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<br />
=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br />
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br />
<br />
==Key words==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br />
<br />
==(1)Introduction==<br />
<br />
===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
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===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br />
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Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
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Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
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Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
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Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
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Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
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==II.Similarities and Differences==<br />
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===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br />
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'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
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Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
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While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
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'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
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Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
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In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
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'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
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'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
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From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
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Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br />
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'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
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Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
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In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
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'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
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In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
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However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br />
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Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
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'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
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In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
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Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
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'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
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'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
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'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
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Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
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Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
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'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
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First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
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In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
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'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
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'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
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Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
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Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
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Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
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'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
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Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
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Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
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Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
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'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
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There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
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'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
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Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
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Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br />
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Bibliography：<br />
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[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
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[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br />
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[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br />
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[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br />
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[6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br />
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[7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br />
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[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br />
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[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br />
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[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br />
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[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br />
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=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br />
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'''摘要'''<br />
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近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br />
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br />
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br />
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'''Key words'''<br />
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br />
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'''Introduction'''<br />
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'''Research background'''<br />
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Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
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'''Significance of the study'''<br />
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By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
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This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
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'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
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'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
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'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
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The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
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Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
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“总统的史学家......”<br />
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It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
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From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br />
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Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
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It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
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'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
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This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br />
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Example：“车来了！”<br />
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“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
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The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
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It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
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'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br />
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'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
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The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
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The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
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The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br />
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The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
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'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
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Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
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'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
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In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
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'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
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In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
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''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
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Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
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Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
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无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
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If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
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'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
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Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
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Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
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这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
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This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br />
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'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
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Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
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Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
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OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
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农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
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开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
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The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br />
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There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
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'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
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This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
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'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
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The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
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German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
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'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
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Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
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But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
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'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
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Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
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Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
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'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
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'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
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The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
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Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
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'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
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Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
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'''Conclusion''' <br />
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By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
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'''Bibliography'''<br />
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Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London & New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br />
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Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br />
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Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br />
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Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br />
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陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br />
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范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br />
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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==<br />
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'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
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'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
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'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
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Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
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'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
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The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br />
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'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
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'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br />
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Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
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(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br />
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“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br />
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In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br />
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From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
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S: “white as snow”<br />
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T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
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Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br />
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(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br />
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On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
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'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
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According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
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'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
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The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br />
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'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
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Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
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'''References'''<br />
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[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br />
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[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br />
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[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br />
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[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br />
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[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br />
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[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
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[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br />
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[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br />
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[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br />
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[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br />
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=Theory and Practise=<br />
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br />
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'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
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'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br />
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'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br />
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'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br />
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'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br />
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A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
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So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
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From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
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'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
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A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
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According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
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“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br />
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In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
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(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
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(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
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Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
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B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
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Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
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C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
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Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
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Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
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Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
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D.Venuti<br />
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Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
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“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
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Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br />
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Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br />
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To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br />
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II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
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A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
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In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
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Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
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Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
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From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
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江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
<br />
江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
<br />
Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
<br />
他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
<br />
他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
<br />
(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
<br />
Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
<br />
The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
<br />
顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
<br />
Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
<br />
Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
<br />
Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
<br />
B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br />
<br />
In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
<br />
Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
<br />
In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
<br />
Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br />
<br />
Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
<br />
So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
<br />
Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
<br />
回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
<br />
The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
<br />
(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
<br />
“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
<br />
(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
<br />
The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br />
<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
<br />
刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
<br />
许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
=Contemporary Translation Studies=<br />
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
<br />
'''Introduction:'''<br />
<br />
In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
<br />
Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br />
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“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
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In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br />
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In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br />
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“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br />
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
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However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
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Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br />
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Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br />
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Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br />
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Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br />
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
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'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
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As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
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Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
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Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br />
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The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
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“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
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It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br />
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Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
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It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
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Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
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Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
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'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
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'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
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Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
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'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
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Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br />
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Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br />
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'''Conclusion:'''<br />
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All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br />
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'''Works Cited'''<br />
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Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
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Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br />
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Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br />
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Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br />
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Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br />
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Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br />
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Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br />
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Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br />
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Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br />
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Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
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Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
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Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br />
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Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br />
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Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br />
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br />
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Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br />
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Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br />
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br />
<br />
'''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br />
<br />
奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''"dynamic equivalence" and "reader's response theory"''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''"'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''"''' (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''"'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''"''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''"Nida Phenomenon"'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br />
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The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br />
<br />
'''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
<br />
According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br />
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Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br />
<br />
Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br />
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2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br />
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3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br />
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3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br />
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4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br />
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In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br />
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Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br />
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===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br />
<br />
As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br />
<br />
As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br />
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The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br />
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Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br />
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The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br />
<br />
1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br />
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'''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br />
<br />
2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br />
<br />
2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br />
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====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br />
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The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br />
<br />
1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br />
<br />
2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br />
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3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br />
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====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br />
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The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br />
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Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br />
<br />
====Summary====<br />
<br />
According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br />
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As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br />
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'''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br />
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It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br />
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=====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br />
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=====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br />
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Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br />
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Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br />
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=====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br />
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After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br />
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The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br />
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Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br />
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However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br />
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Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. (2015). 政府公文英译浅析新编奈达论翻译 [On the English Translation of Government Documents].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(06): 81-87.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida & Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br />
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Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br />
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Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br />
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Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br />
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Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br />
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Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&魏向清&赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br />
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Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br />
<br />
Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br />
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Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br />
<br />
Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br />
<br />
Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br />
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Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br />
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Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br />
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Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br />
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Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br />
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Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br />
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Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br />
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Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong.张美芳&钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能"概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br />
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'''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br />
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==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br />
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===摘要=== <br />
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br />
<br />
Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br />
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Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br />
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From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
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The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br />
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The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br />
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However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br />
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====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br />
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Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br />
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Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br />
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ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br />
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Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br />
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The Pre-research Period<br />
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From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br />
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From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The Experimental Psychology Period<br />
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From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br />
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From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br />
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The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The Renewal Period<br />
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It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
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It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br />
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Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br />
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Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br />
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Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br />
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Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br />
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The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
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====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br />
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The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br />
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During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br />
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During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s<br />
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Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br />
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During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br />
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During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century<br />
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With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br />
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br />
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During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br />
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The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br />
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The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br />
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From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br />
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From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br />
<br />
At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br />
<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br />
<br />
Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br />
<br />
Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br />
*【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br />
*【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
*【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br />
*【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
*【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br />
<br />
==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br />
<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br />
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===摘要===<br />
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br />
<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br />
<br />
This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br />
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===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br />
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====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.<br />
<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br />
<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br />
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br />
<br />
The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br />
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As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br />
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The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br />
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His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br />
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Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br />
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After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br />
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It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br />
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====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br />
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In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br />
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The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br />
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In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win). <br />
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It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br />
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====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br />
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Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br />
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The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
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Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
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At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons." <br />
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The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br />
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Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br />
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The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br />
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===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br />
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====1.The first translation climax====<br />
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br />
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During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br />
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All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
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====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br />
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The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
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"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br />
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Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
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====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br />
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"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br />
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A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br />
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On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"<br />
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In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br />
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===IV.Conclusion===<br />
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br />
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The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br />
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Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br />
<br />
Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br />
<br />
Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br />
<br />
Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br />
<br />
Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br />
<br />
Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br />
<br />
Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br />
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--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br />
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br />
===题目===<br />
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br />
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===摘要===<br />
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br />
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On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br />
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On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br />
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J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br />
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===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br />
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br />
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J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br />
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He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br />
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In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br />
<br />
In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
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The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br />
<br />
When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br />
<br />
As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br />
<br />
Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br />
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br />
<br />
It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br />
<br />
Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br />
<br />
Examples of homophonic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br />
<br />
There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br />
<br />
Examples of homographic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br />
<br />
There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br />
<br />
Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br />
<br />
Examples of palindrome:<br />
<br />
Example 7:<br />
*Madam，I’ m Adam.<br />
*No x in Nixon.<br />
*上海自来水来自海上。<br />
<br />
These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br />
<br />
Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br />
<br />
The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br />
<br />
Example 8:<br />
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br />
<br />
From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br />
<br />
2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br />
<br />
Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br />
<br />
Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br />
<br />
The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 9:<br />
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br />
<br />
*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br />
<br />
*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br />
<br />
*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br />
<br />
The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br />
<br />
Example 10:<br />
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br />
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br />
<br />
The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 11:<br />
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br />
<br />
*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br />
<br />
*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br />
<br />
*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br />
<br />
These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br />
<br />
All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br />
<br />
All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br />
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br />
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br />
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br />
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br />
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br />
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r ><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br />
<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br />
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Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br />
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For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br />
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In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
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In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br />
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In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
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In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br />
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=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br />
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br />
=== 1.1Color === <br />
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br />
=== 1.1.1Red=== <br />
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Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
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In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
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In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br />
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For example, what we say in Chinese "红茶" is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.2Yellow=== <br />
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Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br />
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.3Green=== <br />
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br />
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So in Chinese "envy" or "against the pink eye" in English should be green - eyed, "red eye" in the Chinese into English in the "green eyes", and if it is translated into "red - eyed" that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical "jealous" in English is called "pink eyes". In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means "new person," while a greenhorn means "someone with no experience" or "someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs."(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.2Animal=== <br />
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br />
=== 1.2.1Dog=== <br />
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br />
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br />
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br />
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br />
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br />
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br />
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br />
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7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br />
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br />
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9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br />
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10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br />
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br />
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br />
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br />
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br />
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br />
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br />
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br />
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br />
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br />
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br />
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
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=== 1.2.2Dragon=== <br />
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br />
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br />
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br />
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br />
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br />
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Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.Coping Strategies=== <br />
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br />
=== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br />
=== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br />
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br />
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Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br />
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Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br />
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
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In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br />
=== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br />
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br />
=== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br />
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
=== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br />
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br />
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===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br />
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Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br />
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br />
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Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance". <br />
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Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of "If you are the hypeone" in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause "You can rest assured" was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret "lawful assistance" directly as "giving you guidance".--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br />
<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br />
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ". <br />
<br />
And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br />
<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br />
<br />
Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br />
<br />
Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br />
<br />
Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.<br />
<br />
Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br />
<br />
Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br />
<br />
Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese "Meaning association". However, English attaches great importance to "speech and communication", and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.<br />
<br />
On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br />
<br />
In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br />
<br />
*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br />
<br />
*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br />
<br />
*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br />
<br />
<br />
*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br />
--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br />
<br />
<br />
<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br />
<br />
Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br />
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===2.1 Ideology===<br />
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Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
<br />
Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br />
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Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2.2 Poetics===<br />
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Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br />
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According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===2.3 Patronage===<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br />
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Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br />
<br />
Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===3.Cases Study===<br />
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===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br />
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Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
<br />
Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br />
English version: Hewlett and Packard<br />
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br />
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br />
<br />
Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br />
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br />
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) <br />
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In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
(Act II, Scene IV)<br />
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br />
To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br />
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br />
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br />
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br />
<br />
Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br />
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br />
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
<br />
Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br />
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br />
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br />
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br />
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br />
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br />
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br />
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br />
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br />
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br />
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br />
(Act I, Scene I)<br />
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br />
I would prefer him to a better place.<br />
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br />
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br />
<br />
Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
<br />
Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br />
<br />
Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.<br />
<br />
Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br />
<br />
Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.<br />
<br />
Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.<br />
<br />
Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.<br />
<br />
Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.<br />
<br />
Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.<br />
<br />
==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br />
<br />
<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br />
<br />
===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br />
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br />
Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br />
<br />
Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br />
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br />
<br />
All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
<br />
===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br />
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br />
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）''' <br />
Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br />
<br />
According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br />
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''<br />
Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br />
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According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''<br />
next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br />
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Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br />
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The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. <br />
In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br />
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It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br />
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====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br />
It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br />
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===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br />
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''<br />
As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br />
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Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br />
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====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''<br />
It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br />
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Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br />
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====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br />
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===References===<br />
Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br />
<br />
Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br />
<br />
Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br />
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Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br />
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Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br />
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Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br />
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Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br />
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Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br />
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Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called "zero translation", is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Shifts====<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Limits of Translatability====<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
<br />
Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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(2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
(1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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(3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br />
<br />
==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br />
'''<br />
Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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'''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
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This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
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====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
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However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
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When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
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The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and is presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauties Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformations Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purposes Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblances Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
The "Three-Beauties Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound." Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggested: "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
"Three-Resemblance" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Three-Resemblances Theory" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
<br />
Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences in languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
<br />
Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu employed the math equation to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblances" as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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"Three-Transformations Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauties Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformations Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
<br />
Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
<br />
Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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"Three-Purposes Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauties Theory", "Three-Resemblances Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauties Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauties Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauties Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformations Theory", "Three-Purposes Theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he points out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformations Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauties theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformations Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purposes Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.” <br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
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罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
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There is one more example:<br />
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那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
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In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
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"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
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“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
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Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
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With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
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In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
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Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
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===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
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When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
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Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
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From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
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It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
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这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
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Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
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But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
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He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
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Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
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At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br />
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The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
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Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
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He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
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===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
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This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
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If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
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Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
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This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
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====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
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In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
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Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
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Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
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====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
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"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
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Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
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This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
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Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
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"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
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In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===ABSTRACT===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' (这样空格) Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. （空格）From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. （句点） It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.(句点)（Zhang Delu 2009,15）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. （空格）Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. （这句话除了开头单词首字母，其他单词首字母都要小写）Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, to media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. (空格)Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br />
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In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. （句点） It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br />
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Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun 2017,40)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br />
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The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br />
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Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017,42)）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017,43)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun 2017,44)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun 2017,45)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun 2017,46）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. （插入照片） <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）(插入照片)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br />
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With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,89)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,91)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,92)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,93)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br />
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A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear删掉. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology, (1):22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br />
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Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly, (2):191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br />
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李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br />
Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br />
中西文化史比较<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)<br />
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
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==Difference==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
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In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
<br />
*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
<br />
*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=116081History of Translation Studies 32020-12-19T16:50:43Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br />
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br />
<br />
==Key words==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br />
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==摘要==<br />
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br />
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==关键词==<br />
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br />
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==(1)Introduction==<br />
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===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
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===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br />
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Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
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Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
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Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
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Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
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Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
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==II.Similarities and Differences==<br />
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===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br />
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'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
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Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
<br />
While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
<br />
'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
<br />
Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
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From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
<br />
Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
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In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
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In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
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However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br />
<br />
Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
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'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
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In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
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Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
<br />
'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
<br />
'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
<br />
Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
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Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
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'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
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First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
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In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
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'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
<br />
'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
<br />
Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
<br />
Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
<br />
'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
<br />
'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
<br />
Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br />
<br />
Bibliography：<br />
<br />
[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br />
<br />
[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br />
<br />
[6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br />
<br />
[7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br />
<br />
[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br />
<br />
[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br />
<br />
[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br />
<br />
[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br />
<br />
=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br />
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br />
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br />
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'''Introduction'''<br />
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'''Research background'''<br />
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Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
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'''Significance of the study'''<br />
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By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
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This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
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'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
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'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
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'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
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The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
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Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
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“总统的史学家......”<br />
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It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
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From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br />
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Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
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It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
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'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
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This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br />
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Example：“车来了！”<br />
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“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
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The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
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It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
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'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br />
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'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
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The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
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The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
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The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br />
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The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
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'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
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Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
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'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
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In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
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'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
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In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
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''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
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Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
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Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
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无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
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If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
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'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
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Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
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Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
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这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
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This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br />
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'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
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Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
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Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
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OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
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农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
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开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
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The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br />
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There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
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'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
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This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
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'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
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The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
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German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
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'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
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Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
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But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
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'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
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Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
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Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
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'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
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'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
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The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
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Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
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'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
<br />
Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion''' <br />
<br />
By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography'''<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London & New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br />
<br />
Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br />
<br />
Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br />
<br />
陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br />
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范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br />
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李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br />
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张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br />
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张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br />
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张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br />
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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
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'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
<br />
'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
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'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
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The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br />
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'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
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'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br />
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Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
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(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br />
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“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br />
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In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br />
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From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
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S: “white as snow”<br />
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T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
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Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br />
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(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br />
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On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
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'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
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According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
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'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
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The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br />
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'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
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Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br />
<br />
[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br />
<br />
[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br />
<br />
[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br />
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[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br />
<br />
[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br />
<br />
[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br />
<br />
[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br />
<br />
[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br />
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=Theory and Practise=<br />
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br />
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'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
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'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br />
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'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br />
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'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br />
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'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br />
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A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
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So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
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From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
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'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
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A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
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According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
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“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br />
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In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
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(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
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(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
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Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
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B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
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Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
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C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
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Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
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Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
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Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
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D.Venuti<br />
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Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
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“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
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Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br />
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Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br />
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To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br />
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II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
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A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
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In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
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Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
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Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
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From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
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江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
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江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
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And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
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Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
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他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
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他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
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(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
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Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
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The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
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顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
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Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
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Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
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Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
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B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br />
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In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
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Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
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In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
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Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br />
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Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
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So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
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Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
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回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
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Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
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This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
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The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
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(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
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“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
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(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
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(Jiang 278-279)<br />
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The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br />
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For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
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C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
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As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
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The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
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In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br />
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The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
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To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
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(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
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我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
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In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
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(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
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“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
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The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
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(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
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“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br />
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你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
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“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
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The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br />
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(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
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因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
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According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br />
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Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
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From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
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III.Conclusion<br />
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This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
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For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br />
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For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
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Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
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'''Work Cited'''<br />
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胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
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蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
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李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
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刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
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许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
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许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
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Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
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Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
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Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
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Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
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Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
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Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
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Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
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Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
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Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
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Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
=Contemporary Translation Studies=<br />
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
<br />
'''Introduction:'''<br />
<br />
In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
<br />
Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br />
<br />
“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
<br />
In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br />
<br />
In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br />
<br />
“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br />
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
<br />
However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
<br />
Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br />
<br />
Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br />
<br />
Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br />
<br />
Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br />
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
<br />
Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br />
<br />
The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
<br />
It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br />
<br />
Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
<br />
It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
<br />
Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
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'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
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'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
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Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
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'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
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Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br />
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Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br />
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'''Conclusion:'''<br />
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All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br />
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<br />
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'''Works Cited'''<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br />
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Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br />
<br />
Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br />
<br />
Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br />
<br />
Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br />
<br />
Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br />
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br />
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Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br />
<br />
Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br />
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<br />
==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br />
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Keywords===<br />
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Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br />
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'''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br />
<br />
奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''"dynamic equivalence" and "reader's response theory"''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''"'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''"''' (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''"'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''"''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''"Nida Phenomenon"'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br />
<br />
'''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br />
<br />
Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br />
<br />
Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br />
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2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br />
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3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br />
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3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br />
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4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br />
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In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br />
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Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br />
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===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br />
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As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br />
<br />
As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br />
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The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br />
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Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br />
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The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br />
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1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br />
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'''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br />
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====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br />
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The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br />
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1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br />
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2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br />
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3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br />
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====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br />
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The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br />
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Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br />
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====Summary====<br />
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According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br />
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As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br />
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'''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br />
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It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br />
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=====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br />
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=====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br />
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Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br />
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Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br />
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=====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br />
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After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br />
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The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br />
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Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br />
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However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br />
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Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. (2015). 政府公文英译浅析新编奈达论翻译 [On the English Translation of Government Documents].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(06): 81-87.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida & Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br />
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Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br />
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Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br />
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Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br />
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Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br />
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Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&魏向清&赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br />
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Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br />
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Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br />
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Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br />
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Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br />
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Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br />
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Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br />
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Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br />
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Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br />
<br />
Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br />
<br />
Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong.张美芳&钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能"概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br />
<br />
'''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br />
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==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br />
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<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br />
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===摘要=== <br />
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br />
<br />
Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br />
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Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br />
<br />
Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br />
<br />
From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
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<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br />
<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br />
<br />
<br />
However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br />
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====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br />
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Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br />
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Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br />
<br />
ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br />
<br />
Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br />
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The Pre-research Period<br />
<br />
From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br />
<br />
From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The Experimental Psychology Period<br />
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From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br />
<br />
From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br />
<br />
The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
The Renewal Period<br />
<br />
It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
<br />
It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br />
<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br />
<br />
Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br />
<br />
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br />
<br />
The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
<br />
====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br />
<br />
The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s<br />
<br />
Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century<br />
<br />
With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br />
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br />
<br />
During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br />
<br />
At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br />
<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br />
<br />
Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br />
<br />
Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br />
*【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br />
*【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
*【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br />
*【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
*【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br />
<br />
==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br />
<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br />
<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br />
<br />
This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br />
<br />
===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br />
<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.<br />
<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br />
<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br />
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br />
<br />
The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br />
<br />
As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br />
<br />
The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br />
<br />
His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br />
<br />
After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br />
<br />
It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br />
<br />
In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br />
<br />
The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br />
<br />
In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win). <br />
<br />
It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br />
<br />
Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br />
<br />
The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
<br />
At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons." <br />
<br />
The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br />
<br />
Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br />
<br />
===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br />
<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br />
<br />
All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br />
<br />
The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br />
<br />
Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br />
<br />
"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br />
<br />
===IV.Conclusion===<br />
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br />
<br />
Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br />
<br />
Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br />
<br />
Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br />
<br />
Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br />
<br />
Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br />
<br />
Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br />
<br />
Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br />
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==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br />
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br />
===题目===<br />
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br />
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===摘要===<br />
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br />
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On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br />
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On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br />
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J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br />
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===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br />
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br />
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J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br />
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He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br />
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In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br />
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In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br />
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Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
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The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br />
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The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
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Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br />
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The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br />
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Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
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Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
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As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br />
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Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br />
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The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
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In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
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Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
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Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
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Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
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====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br />
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In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
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As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
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Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br />
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As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br />
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Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
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All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
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2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
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Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br />
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When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br />
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As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
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In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
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In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br />
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Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br />
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Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br />
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====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br />
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br />
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It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br />
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Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br />
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The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br />
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Examples of homophonic pun:<br />
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Example 1:<br />
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br />
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Example 2:<br />
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br />
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Example 3:<br />
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br />
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There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br />
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Examples of homographic pun:<br />
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Example 4:<br />
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br />
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Example 5:<br />
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br />
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Example 6:<br />
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br />
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There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br />
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Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br />
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Examples of palindrome:<br />
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Example 7:<br />
*Madam，I’ m Adam.<br />
*No x in Nixon.<br />
*上海自来水来自海上。<br />
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These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br />
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Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br />
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The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br />
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Example 8:<br />
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br />
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From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br />
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2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br />
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Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br />
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Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br />
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The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br />
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Example 9:<br />
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br />
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*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br />
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*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br />
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*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br />
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In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br />
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However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br />
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The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br />
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Example 10:<br />
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br />
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br />
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The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br />
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Example 11:<br />
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br />
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*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br />
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*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br />
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*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br />
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These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br />
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All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br />
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===3.Conclusion===<br />
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br />
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All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br />
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br />
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br />
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br />
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br />
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br />
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r ><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br />
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=== Key Words ===<br />
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br />
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=== 题目 ===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br />
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=== 关键词 ===<br />
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br />
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=== Introduction ===<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br />
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Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br />
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Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br />
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For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br />
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In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
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In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br />
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In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
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In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br />
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=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br />
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br />
=== 1.1Color === <br />
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br />
=== 1.1.1Red=== <br />
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Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
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In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
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In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br />
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For example, what we say in Chinese "红茶" is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.2Yellow=== <br />
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Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br />
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.3Green=== <br />
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br />
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So in Chinese "envy" or "against the pink eye" in English should be green - eyed, "red eye" in the Chinese into English in the "green eyes", and if it is translated into "red - eyed" that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical "jealous" in English is called "pink eyes". In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means "new person," while a greenhorn means "someone with no experience" or "someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs."(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.2Animal=== <br />
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br />
=== 1.2.1Dog=== <br />
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br />
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br />
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br />
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br />
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br />
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br />
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br />
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7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br />
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br />
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9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br />
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10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br />
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br />
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br />
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br />
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br />
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br />
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br />
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br />
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br />
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br />
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br />
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
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=== 1.2.2Dragon=== <br />
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br />
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br />
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br />
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br />
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br />
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Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.Coping Strategies=== <br />
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br />
=== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br />
=== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br />
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br />
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Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br />
<br />
Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
=== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br />
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
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In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br />
=== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br />
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br />
=== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br />
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
=== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br />
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br />
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<br />
===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br />
<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br />
<br />
Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br />
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br />
<br />
Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br />
<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br />
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Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance". <br />
<br />
Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of "If you are the hypeone" in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause "You can rest assured" was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret "lawful assistance" directly as "giving you guidance".--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br />
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ". <br />
<br />
And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br />
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Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br />
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Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br />
<br />
Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.<br />
<br />
Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br />
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Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br />
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Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese "Meaning association". However, English attaches great importance to "speech and communication", and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.<br />
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On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br />
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In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br />
<br />
*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br />
<br />
*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br />
<br />
*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br />
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*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br />
--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br />
<br />
<br />
<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br />
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===题目===<br />
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br />
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===摘要===<br />
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br />
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Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br />
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Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br />
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===2.1 Ideology===<br />
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Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br />
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Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2.2 Poetics===<br />
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Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br />
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According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===2.3 Patronage===<br />
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Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br />
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Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br />
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Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===3.Cases Study===<br />
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===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br />
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Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br />
English version: Hewlett and Packard<br />
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br />
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br />
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Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br />
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br />
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) <br />
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In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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(Act II, Scene IV)<br />
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br />
To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br />
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br />
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br />
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br />
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Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br />
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br />
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
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Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br />
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br />
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br />
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br />
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br />
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br />
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br />
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br />
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br />
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br />
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br />
(Act I, Scene I)<br />
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br />
I would prefer him to a better place.<br />
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br />
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br />
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Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
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Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br />
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Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.<br />
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Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br />
<br />
Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.<br />
<br />
Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.<br />
<br />
Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.<br />
<br />
Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.<br />
<br />
Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.<br />
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==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br />
<br />
<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br />
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===题目===<br />
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br />
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===摘要===<br />
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br />
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===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br />
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br />
Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br />
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Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br />
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====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br />
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br />
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Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br />
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All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
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===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br />
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br />
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）''' <br />
Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br />
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According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br />
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====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br />
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''<br />
Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br />
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According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''<br />
next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br />
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Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br />
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The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. <br />
In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br />
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It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br />
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====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br />
It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br />
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===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br />
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''<br />
As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br />
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Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br />
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====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''<br />
It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br />
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Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br />
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====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br />
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===References===<br />
Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br />
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Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br />
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Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br />
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Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br />
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Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br />
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Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br />
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Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br />
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Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br />
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Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br />
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Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
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==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
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<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called "zero translation", is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
(2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
(1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
(3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
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* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
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* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
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* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
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* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
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* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br />
<br />
==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
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===题目===<br />
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探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
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===摘要===<br />
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尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
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尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
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===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
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Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
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Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
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In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br />
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Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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'''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br />
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Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
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This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
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====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
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The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
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However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
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Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
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Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
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When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and is presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauties Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformations Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purposes Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblances Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
The "Three-Beauties Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound." Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggested: "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
"Three-Resemblance" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Three-Resemblances Theory" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences in languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu employed the math equation to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblances" as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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"Three-Transformations Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauties Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformations Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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"Three-Purposes Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauties Theory", "Three-Resemblances Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauties Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauties Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauties Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformations Theory", "Three-Purposes Theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he points out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformations Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauties theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformations Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purposes Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.” <br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' (这样空格) Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. （空格）From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. （句点） It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.(句点)（Zhang Delu 2009,15）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. （空格）Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. （这句话除了开头单词首字母，其他单词首字母都要小写）Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, to media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. (空格)Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br />
<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. （句点） It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br />
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Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun 2017,40)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br />
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The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br />
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Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017,42)）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017,43)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun 2017,44)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun 2017,45)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun 2017,46）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. （插入照片） <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）(插入照片)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br />
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With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,89)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,91)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,92)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,93)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology, (1):22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br />
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Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly, (2):191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br />
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李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br />
Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
<br />
摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br />
中西文化史比较<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)<br />
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
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==Difference==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
<br />
There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)<br />
<br />
The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
<br />
*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
<br />
*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=116076History of Translation Studies 32020-12-19T16:44:26Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text */</p>
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<br />
=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br />
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br />
<br />
==Key words==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br />
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==摘要==<br />
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br />
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==关键词==<br />
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br />
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==(1)Introduction==<br />
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===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
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===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br />
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Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
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Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
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Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
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Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
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Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
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==II.Similarities and Differences==<br />
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===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
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Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
<br />
While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
<br />
'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
<br />
Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
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From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
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Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
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In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
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In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
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However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br />
<br />
Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
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In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
<br />
'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
<br />
'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
<br />
Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
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'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
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First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
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In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
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'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
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'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
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Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
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Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
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Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
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'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
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Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
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Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
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Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
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'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
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There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
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'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
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Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
<br />
Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br />
<br />
Bibliography：<br />
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[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
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[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br />
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[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br />
<br />
[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br />
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[6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br />
<br />
[7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br />
<br />
[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br />
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[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br />
<br />
[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br />
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[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br />
<br />
=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br />
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'''摘要'''<br />
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近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br />
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br />
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br />
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'''Key words'''<br />
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br />
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'''Introduction'''<br />
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'''Research background'''<br />
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Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
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'''Significance of the study'''<br />
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By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
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This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
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'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
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'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
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'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
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The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
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Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
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“总统的史学家......”<br />
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It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
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From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br />
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Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
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It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
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'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
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This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br />
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Example：“车来了！”<br />
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“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
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The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
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It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
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'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br />
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'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
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The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
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The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
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The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br />
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The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
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'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
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Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
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'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
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In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
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'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
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In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
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''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
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Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
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Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
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无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
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If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
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'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
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Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
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Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
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这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
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This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br />
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'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
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Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
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Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
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OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
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农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
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开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
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The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br />
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There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
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'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
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This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
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'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
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The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
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German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
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'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
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Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
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But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
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'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
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Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
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Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
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'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
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'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
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The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
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Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
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'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
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Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
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'''Conclusion''' <br />
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By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography'''<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London & New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br />
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Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br />
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Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br />
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Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br />
<br />
陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br />
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范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br />
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李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br />
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张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br />
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张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br />
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张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br />
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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==<br />
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'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
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'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
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'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
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Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
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'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
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The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br />
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'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
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'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br />
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Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
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(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br />
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“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br />
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In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br />
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From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
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S: “white as snow”<br />
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T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
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Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br />
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(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br />
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On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
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'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
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According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
<br />
The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br />
<br />
'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br />
<br />
[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br />
<br />
[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br />
<br />
[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br />
<br />
[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br />
<br />
[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br />
<br />
[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br />
<br />
[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br />
<br />
[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br />
<br />
=Theory and Practise=<br />
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
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'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br />
<br />
'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br />
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'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br />
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'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br />
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A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
<br />
So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
<br />
From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
<br />
'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
<br />
A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
<br />
According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
<br />
“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br />
<br />
In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
<br />
(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
<br />
(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
<br />
Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
<br />
B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
<br />
Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
<br />
C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
<br />
Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
<br />
Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
<br />
Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
<br />
D.Venuti<br />
<br />
Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
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“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
<br />
Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br />
<br />
Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br />
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To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br />
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II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
<br />
A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
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In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
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Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
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From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
<br />
江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
<br />
江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
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Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
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他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
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他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
<br />
(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
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Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
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The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
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顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
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Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
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Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
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Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
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B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br />
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In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
<br />
Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
<br />
In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
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Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br />
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Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
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So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
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Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
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回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
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The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
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(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
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“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
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(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
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The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br />
<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
<br />
刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
<br />
许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
=Contemporary Translation Studies=<br />
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
<br />
'''Introduction:'''<br />
<br />
In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
<br />
Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br />
<br />
“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
<br />
In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br />
<br />
In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br />
<br />
“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br />
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
<br />
However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
<br />
Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br />
<br />
Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br />
<br />
Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br />
<br />
Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br />
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
<br />
Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br />
<br />
The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
<br />
It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br />
<br />
Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
<br />
It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
<br />
Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
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'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
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'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
<br />
Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
<br />
'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
<br />
Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br />
<br />
'''Conclusion:'''<br />
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All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Works Cited'''<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br />
<br />
Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br />
<br />
Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br />
<br />
Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br />
<br />
Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br />
<br />
Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br />
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br />
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Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br />
<br />
Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br />
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br />
<br />
'''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br />
<br />
奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''"dynamic equivalence" and "reader's response theory"''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''"'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''"''' (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''"'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''"''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''"Nida Phenomenon"'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br />
<br />
'''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br />
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Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br />
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Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br />
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2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br />
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3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br />
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3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br />
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4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br />
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In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br />
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Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br />
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===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br />
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As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br />
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As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br />
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The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br />
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Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br />
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The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br />
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1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br />
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'''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br />
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====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br />
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The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br />
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1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br />
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2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br />
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3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br />
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====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br />
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The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br />
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Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br />
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====Summary====<br />
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According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br />
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As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br />
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'''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br />
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It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br />
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=====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br />
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=====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br />
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Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br />
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Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br />
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=====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br />
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After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br />
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The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br />
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Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br />
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However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br />
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Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. (2015). 政府公文英译浅析新编奈达论翻译 [On the English Translation of Government Documents].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(06): 81-87.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida & Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br />
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Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br />
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Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br />
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Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br />
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Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br />
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Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&魏向清&赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br />
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Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br />
<br />
Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br />
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Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br />
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Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br />
<br />
Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br />
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Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br />
<br />
Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br />
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Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br />
<br />
Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br />
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Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br />
<br />
Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong.张美芳&钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能"概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br />
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'''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br />
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==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br />
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===摘要=== <br />
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br />
<br />
Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br />
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Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br />
<br />
Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br />
<br />
From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
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<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br />
<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br />
<br />
<br />
However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br />
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====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br />
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Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br />
<br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br />
<br />
ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br />
<br />
Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br />
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The Pre-research Period<br />
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From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br />
<br />
From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The Experimental Psychology Period<br />
<br />
From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br />
<br />
From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br />
<br />
The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The Renewal Period<br />
<br />
It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
<br />
It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br />
<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br />
<br />
Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br />
<br />
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br />
<br />
The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
<br />
====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br />
<br />
The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s<br />
<br />
Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century<br />
<br />
With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br />
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br />
<br />
During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br />
<br />
At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br />
<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br />
<br />
Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br />
<br />
Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br />
*【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br />
*【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
*【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br />
*【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
*【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br />
<br />
==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br />
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History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题目===<br />
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br />
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===摘要===<br />
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br />
<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br />
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And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br />
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And "André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br />
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This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br />
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===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br />
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====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br />
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During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br />
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During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
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At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
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The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.<br />
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In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
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The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br />
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China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.<br />
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A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br />
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On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br />
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In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br />
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br />
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The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br />
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As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br />
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The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br />
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His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br />
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Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br />
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After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br />
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It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br />
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====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br />
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In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br />
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The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br />
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In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win). <br />
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It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br />
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====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br />
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Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br />
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The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
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Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
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At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons." <br />
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The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br />
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Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br />
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The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br />
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===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br />
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====1.The first translation climax====<br />
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br />
<br />
All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br />
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The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br />
<br />
Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br />
<br />
"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br />
<br />
===IV.Conclusion===<br />
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br />
<br />
Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br />
<br />
Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br />
<br />
Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br />
<br />
Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br />
<br />
Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br />
<br />
Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br />
<br />
Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br />
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br />
===题目===<br />
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br />
<br />
===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br />
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br />
<br />
He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br />
<br />
In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br />
<br />
In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br />
<br />
When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br />
<br />
As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br />
<br />
Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br />
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br />
<br />
It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br />
<br />
Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br />
<br />
Examples of homophonic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br />
<br />
There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br />
<br />
Examples of homographic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br />
<br />
There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br />
<br />
Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br />
<br />
Examples of palindrome:<br />
<br />
Example 7:<br />
*Madam，I’ m Adam.<br />
*No x in Nixon.<br />
*上海自来水来自海上。<br />
<br />
These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br />
<br />
Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br />
<br />
The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br />
<br />
Example 8:<br />
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br />
<br />
From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br />
<br />
2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br />
<br />
Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br />
<br />
Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br />
<br />
The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 9:<br />
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br />
<br />
*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br />
<br />
*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br />
<br />
*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br />
<br />
The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br />
<br />
Example 10:<br />
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br />
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br />
<br />
The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 11:<br />
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br />
<br />
*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br />
<br />
*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br />
<br />
*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br />
<br />
These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br />
<br />
All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br />
<br />
All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br />
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br />
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br />
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br />
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br />
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br />
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r ><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br />
<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br />
<br />
Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br />
<br />
For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br />
<br />
In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br />
<br />
In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
<br />
In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br />
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=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br />
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br />
=== 1.1Color === <br />
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br />
=== 1.1.1Red=== <br />
<br />
Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
<br />
In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
<br />
In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br />
<br />
For example, what we say in Chinese "红茶" is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.2Yellow=== <br />
<br />
Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
<br />
Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br />
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br />
<br />
At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.3Green=== <br />
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br />
<br />
So in Chinese "envy" or "against the pink eye" in English should be green - eyed, "red eye" in the Chinese into English in the "green eyes", and if it is translated into "red - eyed" that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical "jealous" in English is called "pink eyes". In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means "new person," while a greenhorn means "someone with no experience" or "someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs."(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
=== 1.2Animal=== <br />
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br />
=== 1.2.1Dog=== <br />
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br />
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br />
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br />
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br />
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br />
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br />
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br />
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7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br />
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br />
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9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br />
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10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br />
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br />
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br />
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br />
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br />
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br />
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br />
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br />
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br />
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br />
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br />
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
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=== 1.2.2Dragon=== <br />
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br />
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br />
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br />
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br />
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br />
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Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.Coping Strategies=== <br />
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br />
=== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br />
=== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br />
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br />
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Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br />
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Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br />
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
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In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br />
=== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br />
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br />
=== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br />
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
=== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br />
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br />
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===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br />
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Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br />
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br />
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Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance". <br />
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Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of "If you are the hypeone" in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause "You can rest assured" was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret "lawful assistance" directly as "giving you guidance".--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br />
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ". <br />
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And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br />
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Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br />
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Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br />
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Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.<br />
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Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br />
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Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br />
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Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese "Meaning association". However, English attaches great importance to "speech and communication", and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.<br />
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On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br />
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Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br />
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In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br />
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*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br />
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*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br />
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*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br />
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*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br />
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*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br />
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*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br />
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*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br />
--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br />
<br />
<br />
<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br />
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===题目===<br />
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br />
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===摘要===<br />
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br />
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Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br />
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Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br />
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===2.1 Ideology===<br />
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Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br />
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Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2.2 Poetics===<br />
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Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br />
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According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===2.3 Patronage===<br />
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Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br />
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Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br />
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Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===3.Cases Study===<br />
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===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br />
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Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br />
English version: Hewlett and Packard<br />
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br />
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br />
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Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br />
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br />
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) <br />
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In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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(Act II, Scene IV)<br />
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br />
To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br />
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br />
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br />
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br />
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Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br />
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br />
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
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Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br />
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br />
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br />
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br />
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br />
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br />
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br />
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br />
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br />
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br />
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br />
(Act I, Scene I)<br />
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br />
I would prefer him to a better place.<br />
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br />
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br />
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Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
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Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br />
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Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.<br />
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Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br />
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Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.<br />
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Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.<br />
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Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.<br />
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Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.<br />
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Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.<br />
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Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.<br />
<br />
==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br />
<br />
<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br />
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===题目===<br />
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br />
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===摘要===<br />
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br />
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===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br />
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br />
Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br />
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Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br />
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====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br />
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br />
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Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br />
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All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
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===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br />
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br />
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）''' <br />
Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br />
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According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br />
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====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br />
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''<br />
Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br />
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According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''<br />
next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br />
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Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br />
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The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. <br />
In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br />
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It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br />
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====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br />
It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br />
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===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br />
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''<br />
As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br />
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Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br />
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====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''<br />
It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br />
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Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br />
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====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br />
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Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br />
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Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br />
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Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br />
<br />
Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called "zero translation", is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Equivalence====<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Shifts====<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Limits of Translatability====<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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(2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
(1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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(3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br />
<br />
==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br />
'''<br />
Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
'''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and is presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauties Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformations Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purposes Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblances Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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The "Three-Beauties Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound." Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggested: "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
"Three-Resemblance" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Three-Resemblances Theory" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences in languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu employed the math equation to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblances" as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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"Three-Transformations Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauties Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformations Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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"Three-Purposes Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauties Theory", "Three-Resemblances Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauties Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauties Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauties Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformations Theory", "Three-Purposes Theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
<br />
Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he points out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformations Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauties theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformations Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purposes Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
<br />
Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.” <br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' (这样空格) Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. （空格）From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. （句点） It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.(句点)（Zhang Delu 2009,15）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. （空格）Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. （这句话除了开头单词首字母，其他单词首字母都要小写）Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, to media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. (空格)Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br />
<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. （句点） It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br />
<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun 2017,40)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br />
<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br />
<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017,42)）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017,43)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun 2017,44)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun 2017,45)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun 2017,46）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. （插入照片） <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）(插入照片)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology, (1):22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br />
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Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly, (2):191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br />
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李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br />
<br />
Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br />
<br />
Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br />
<br />
Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br />
Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
<br />
摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br />
中西文化史比较<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)<br />
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br />
<br />
The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br />
<br />
In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
<br />
Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Difference==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
<br />
There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)<br />
<br />
The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
<br />
*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
<br />
*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=116074History of Translation Studies 32020-12-19T16:37:32Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation */</p>
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<br />
=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br />
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br />
<br />
==Key words==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br />
<br />
==(1)Introduction==<br />
<br />
===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
<br />
===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
<br />
Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
<br />
Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
<br />
Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
<br />
==II.Similarities and Differences==<br />
<br />
===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
<br />
While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
<br />
'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
<br />
Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
<br />
Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
<br />
In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
<br />
However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br />
<br />
Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
<br />
In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
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Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
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'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
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'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
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'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
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Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
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Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
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'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
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First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
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In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
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'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
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'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
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Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
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Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
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Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
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'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
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Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
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Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
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Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
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'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
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There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
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'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
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Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
<br />
Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br />
<br />
Bibliography：<br />
<br />
[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br />
<br />
[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br />
<br />
[6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br />
<br />
[7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br />
<br />
[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br />
<br />
[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br />
<br />
[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br />
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[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br />
<br />
=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
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近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br />
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br />
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br />
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'''Key words'''<br />
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br />
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'''Introduction'''<br />
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'''Research background'''<br />
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Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
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'''Significance of the study'''<br />
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By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
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This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
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'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
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'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
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'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
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The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
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Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
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“总统的史学家......”<br />
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It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
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From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br />
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Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
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It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
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'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
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This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br />
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Example：“车来了！”<br />
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“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
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The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
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It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
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'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br />
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'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
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The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
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The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
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The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br />
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The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
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'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
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Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
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'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
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In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
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'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
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In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
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''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
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Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
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Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
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无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
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If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
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'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
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Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
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Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
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这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
<br />
This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br />
<br />
'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
<br />
Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
<br />
Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
<br />
OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
<br />
农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
<br />
开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
<br />
The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br />
<br />
There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
<br />
'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
<br />
This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
<br />
'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
<br />
The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
<br />
German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
<br />
'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
<br />
But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
<br />
'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
<br />
Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
<br />
Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
<br />
The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
<br />
Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
<br />
Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion''' <br />
<br />
By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography'''<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London & New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br />
<br />
Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br />
<br />
Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br />
<br />
陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br />
<br />
范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br />
<br />
李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br />
<br />
张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br />
<br />
张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br />
<br />
张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br />
<br />
=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
<br />
'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
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The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br />
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'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
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<br />
'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br />
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Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
<br />
(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br />
<br />
“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br />
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In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br />
<br />
From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
<br />
S: “white as snow”<br />
<br />
T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
<br />
From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
<br />
Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br />
<br />
(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br />
<br />
On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
<br />
'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
<br />
According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
<br />
The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br />
<br />
'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br />
<br />
[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br />
<br />
[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br />
<br />
[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br />
<br />
[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br />
<br />
[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br />
<br />
[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br />
<br />
[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br />
<br />
[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br />
<br />
=Theory and Practise=<br />
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
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'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br />
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'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br />
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'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br />
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'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br />
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A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
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So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
<br />
From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
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'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
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A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
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According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
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“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br />
<br />
In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
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(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
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(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
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Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
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B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
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Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
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C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
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Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
<br />
Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
<br />
Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
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D.Venuti<br />
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Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
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“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
<br />
Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br />
<br />
Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br />
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To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br />
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II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
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A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
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In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
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Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
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Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
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From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
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江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
<br />
江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
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Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
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他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
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他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
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(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
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Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
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The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
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顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
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Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
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Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
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Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
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B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br />
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In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
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Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
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In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
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Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br />
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Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
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So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
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Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
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回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
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The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
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(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
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“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
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(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
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The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br />
<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
<br />
刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
<br />
许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
=Contemporary Translation Studies=<br />
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
<br />
'''Introduction:'''<br />
<br />
In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
<br />
Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br />
<br />
“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
<br />
In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br />
<br />
In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br />
<br />
“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br />
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
<br />
However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
<br />
Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br />
<br />
Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br />
<br />
Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br />
<br />
Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br />
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
<br />
Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br />
<br />
The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
<br />
It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br />
<br />
Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
<br />
It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
<br />
Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
<br />
<br />
'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
<br />
Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
<br />
'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
<br />
Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br />
<br />
'''Conclusion:'''<br />
<br />
All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Works Cited'''<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br />
<br />
Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br />
<br />
Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br />
<br />
Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br />
<br />
Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br />
<br />
Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br />
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br />
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Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br />
<br />
Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br />
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br />
<br />
'''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br />
<br />
奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''"dynamic equivalence" and "reader's response theory"''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''"'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''"''' (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''"'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''"''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''"Nida Phenomenon"'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br />
<br />
'''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br />
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Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br />
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Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br />
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2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br />
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3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br />
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3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br />
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4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br />
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In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br />
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Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br />
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===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br />
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As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br />
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As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br />
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The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br />
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Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br />
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The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br />
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1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br />
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'''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br />
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====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br />
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The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br />
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1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br />
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2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br />
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3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br />
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====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br />
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The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br />
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Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br />
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====Summary====<br />
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According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br />
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As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br />
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'''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br />
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It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br />
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=====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br />
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=====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br />
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Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br />
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Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br />
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=====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br />
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After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br />
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The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br />
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Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br />
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However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br />
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Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. (2015). 政府公文英译浅析新编奈达论翻译 [On the English Translation of Government Documents].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(06): 81-87.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida & Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br />
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Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br />
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Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br />
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Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br />
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Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br />
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Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&魏向清&赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br />
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Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br />
<br />
Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br />
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Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br />
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Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br />
<br />
Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br />
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Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br />
<br />
Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br />
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Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br />
<br />
Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br />
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Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br />
<br />
Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong.张美芳&钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能"概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br />
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'''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br />
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==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br />
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===摘要=== <br />
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br />
<br />
Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br />
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Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br />
<br />
Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br />
<br />
From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
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<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br />
<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br />
<br />
<br />
However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br />
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====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br />
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Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br />
<br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br />
<br />
ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br />
<br />
Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br />
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The Pre-research Period<br />
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From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br />
<br />
From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The Experimental Psychology Period<br />
<br />
From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br />
<br />
From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br />
<br />
The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The Renewal Period<br />
<br />
It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
<br />
It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br />
<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br />
<br />
Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br />
<br />
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br />
<br />
The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
<br />
====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br />
<br />
The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s<br />
<br />
Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century<br />
<br />
With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br />
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br />
<br />
During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br />
<br />
At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br />
<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br />
<br />
Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br />
<br />
Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br />
*【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br />
*【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
*【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br />
*【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
*【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br />
<br />
==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br />
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History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题目===<br />
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br />
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===摘要===<br />
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br />
<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br />
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And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br />
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And "André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br />
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This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br />
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===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br />
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====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br />
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During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br />
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During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
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At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
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The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.<br />
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In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
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The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br />
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China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.<br />
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A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br />
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On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br />
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In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br />
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br />
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The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br />
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As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br />
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The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br />
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His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br />
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Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br />
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After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br />
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It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br />
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====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br />
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In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br />
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The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br />
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In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win). <br />
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It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br />
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====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br />
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Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br />
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The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
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Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
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At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons." <br />
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The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br />
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Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br />
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The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br />
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===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br />
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====1.The first translation climax====<br />
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br />
<br />
All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br />
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The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br />
<br />
Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br />
<br />
"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br />
<br />
===IV.Conclusion===<br />
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br />
<br />
Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br />
<br />
Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br />
<br />
Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br />
<br />
Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br />
<br />
Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br />
<br />
Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br />
<br />
Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br />
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br />
===题目===<br />
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br />
<br />
===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br />
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br />
<br />
He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br />
<br />
In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br />
<br />
In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br />
<br />
When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br />
<br />
As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br />
<br />
Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br />
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br />
<br />
It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br />
<br />
Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br />
<br />
Examples of homophonic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br />
<br />
There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br />
<br />
Examples of homographic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br />
<br />
There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br />
<br />
Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br />
<br />
Examples of palindrome:<br />
<br />
Example 7:<br />
*Madam，I’ m Adam.<br />
*No x in Nixon.<br />
*上海自来水来自海上。<br />
<br />
These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br />
<br />
Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br />
<br />
The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br />
<br />
Example 8:<br />
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br />
<br />
From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br />
<br />
2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br />
<br />
Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br />
<br />
Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br />
<br />
The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 9:<br />
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br />
<br />
*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br />
<br />
*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br />
<br />
*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br />
<br />
The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br />
<br />
Example 10:<br />
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br />
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br />
<br />
The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 11:<br />
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br />
<br />
*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br />
<br />
*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br />
<br />
*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br />
<br />
These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br />
<br />
All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br />
<br />
All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br />
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br />
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br />
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br />
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br />
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br />
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r ><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br />
<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br />
<br />
Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br />
<br />
For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br />
<br />
In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br />
<br />
In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
<br />
In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br />
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=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br />
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br />
=== 1.1Color === <br />
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br />
=== 1.1.1Red=== <br />
<br />
Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
<br />
In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
<br />
In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br />
<br />
For example, what we say in Chinese "红茶" is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.2Yellow=== <br />
<br />
Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
<br />
Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br />
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br />
<br />
At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.3Green=== <br />
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br />
<br />
So in Chinese "envy" or "against the pink eye" in English should be green - eyed, "red eye" in the Chinese into English in the "green eyes", and if it is translated into "red - eyed" that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical "jealous" in English is called "pink eyes". In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means "new person," while a greenhorn means "someone with no experience" or "someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs."(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
=== 1.2Animal=== <br />
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br />
=== 1.2.1Dog=== <br />
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br />
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br />
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br />
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br />
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br />
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br />
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br />
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7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br />
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br />
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9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br />
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10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br />
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br />
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br />
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br />
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br />
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br />
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br />
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br />
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br />
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br />
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br />
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
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=== 1.2.2Dragon=== <br />
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br />
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br />
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br />
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br />
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br />
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Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.Coping Strategies=== <br />
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br />
=== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br />
=== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br />
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br />
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Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br />
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Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br />
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
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In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br />
=== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br />
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br />
=== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br />
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
=== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br />
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br />
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===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br />
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Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br />
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br />
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Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance". <br />
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Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of "If you are the hypeone" in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause "You can rest assured" was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret "lawful assistance" directly as "giving you guidance".--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br />
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ". <br />
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And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br />
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Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br />
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Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br />
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Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.<br />
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Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br />
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Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br />
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Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese "Meaning association". However, English attaches great importance to "speech and communication", and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.<br />
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On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br />
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Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br />
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In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br />
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*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br />
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*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br />
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*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br />
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*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br />
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*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br />
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*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br />
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*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br />
--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br />
<br />
<br />
<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br />
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===题目===<br />
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br />
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===摘要===<br />
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br />
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Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br />
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Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br />
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===2.1 Ideology===<br />
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Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br />
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Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2.2 Poetics===<br />
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Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br />
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According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===2.3 Patronage===<br />
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Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br />
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Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br />
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Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===3.Cases Study===<br />
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===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br />
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Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br />
English version: Hewlett and Packard<br />
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br />
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br />
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Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br />
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br />
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) <br />
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In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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(Act II, Scene IV)<br />
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br />
To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br />
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br />
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br />
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br />
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Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br />
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br />
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
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Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br />
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br />
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br />
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br />
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br />
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br />
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br />
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br />
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br />
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br />
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br />
(Act I, Scene I)<br />
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br />
I would prefer him to a better place.<br />
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br />
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br />
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Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
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Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br />
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Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.<br />
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Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br />
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Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.<br />
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Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.<br />
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Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.<br />
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Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.<br />
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Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.<br />
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Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.<br />
<br />
==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br />
<br />
<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br />
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===题目===<br />
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br />
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===摘要===<br />
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br />
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===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br />
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br />
Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br />
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Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br />
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====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br />
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br />
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Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br />
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All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
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===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br />
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br />
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）''' <br />
Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br />
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According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br />
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====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br />
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''<br />
Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br />
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According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''<br />
next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br />
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Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br />
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The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. <br />
In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br />
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It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br />
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====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br />
It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br />
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===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br />
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''<br />
As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br />
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Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br />
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====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''<br />
It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br />
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Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br />
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====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br />
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Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br />
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Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br />
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Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br />
<br />
Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called "zero translation", is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Equivalence====<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Shifts====<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Limits of Translatability====<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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(2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
(1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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(3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br />
<br />
==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br />
'''<br />
Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
'''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and is presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauties Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformations Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purposes Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblances Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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The "Three-Beauties Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound." Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggested: "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
"Three-Resemblance" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Three-Resemblances Theory" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences in languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu employed the math equation to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblances" as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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"Three-Transformations Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauties Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformations Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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"Three-Purposes Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauties Theory", "Three-Resemblances Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauties Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauties Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauties Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformations Theory", "Three-Purposes Theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
<br />
Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he points out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformations Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauties theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformations Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purposes Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
<br />
Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.” <br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' (这样空格) Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. （空格）From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. （句点） It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.(句点)（Zhang Delu 2009,15）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. （空格）Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. （这句话除了开头单词首字母，其他单词首字母都要小写）Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, to media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. (空格)Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br />
<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. （句点） It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br />
<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun 2017,40)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br />
<br />
====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br />
<br />
====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br />
<br />
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Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology, (1):22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br />
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Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly, (2):191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br />
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<br />
==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br />
Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br />
中西文化史比较<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)<br />
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
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==Difference==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
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In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=116067History of Translation Studies 32020-12-19T16:14:36Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad */</p>
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<br />
=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br />
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br />
<br />
==Key words==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br />
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==(1)Introduction==<br />
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===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
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===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br />
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Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
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Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
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Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
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Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
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Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
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==II.Similarities and Differences==<br />
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===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br />
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'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
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Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
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While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
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'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
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Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
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In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
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'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
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'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
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From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
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Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
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Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
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In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
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'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
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In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
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However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br />
<br />
Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
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'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
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In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
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Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
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'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
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'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
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'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
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Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
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Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
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'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
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First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
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In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
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'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
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'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
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Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
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Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
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Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
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Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
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Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
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Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
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'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
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'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
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Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
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Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br />
<br />
Bibliography：<br />
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[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
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[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br />
<br />
[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br />
<br />
[6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br />
<br />
[7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br />
<br />
[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br />
<br />
[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br />
<br />
[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br />
<br />
[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br />
<br />
=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br />
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br />
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
'''Research background'''<br />
<br />
Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
<br />
'''Significance of the study'''<br />
<br />
By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
<br />
'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
<br />
This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
<br />
'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
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'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
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'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
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The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
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Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
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“总统的史学家......”<br />
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It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
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From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br />
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Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
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It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
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'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
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This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br />
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Example：“车来了！”<br />
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“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
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The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
<br />
It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
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'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br />
<br />
'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
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The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
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The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br />
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The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
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'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
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Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
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'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
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In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
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'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
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In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
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''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
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Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
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Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
<br />
无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
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If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
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'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
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Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
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Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
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这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
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This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br />
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'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
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Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
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Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
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OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
<br />
农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
<br />
开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
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The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br />
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There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
<br />
'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
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This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
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'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
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The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
<br />
German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
<br />
'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
<br />
But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
<br />
'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
<br />
Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
<br />
Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
<br />
The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
<br />
Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
<br />
Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion''' <br />
<br />
By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
<br />
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<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London & New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br />
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Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br />
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Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br />
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Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br />
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陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br />
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李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br />
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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==<br />
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'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
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'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
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'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
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Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
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'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
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The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br />
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'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
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'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br />
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Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
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(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br />
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“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br />
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In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br />
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From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
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S: “white as snow”<br />
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T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
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Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br />
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(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br />
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On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
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'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
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According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
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'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
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The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br />
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'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
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Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
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'''References'''<br />
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[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br />
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[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br />
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[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br />
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[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br />
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[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br />
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[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
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[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br />
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[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br />
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[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br />
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[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br />
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=Theory and Practise=<br />
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br />
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'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
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'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br />
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'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br />
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'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br />
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'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br />
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A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
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So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
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From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
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'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
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A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
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According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
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“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br />
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In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
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(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
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(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
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Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
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B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
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Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
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C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
<br />
Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
<br />
Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
<br />
Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
<br />
D.Venuti<br />
<br />
Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
<br />
“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
<br />
Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br />
<br />
Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br />
<br />
To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br />
<br />
II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
<br />
A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
<br />
In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
<br />
Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
<br />
From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
<br />
江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
<br />
江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
<br />
Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
<br />
他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
<br />
他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
<br />
(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
<br />
Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
<br />
The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
<br />
顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
<br />
Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
<br />
Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
<br />
Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
<br />
B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br />
<br />
In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
<br />
Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
<br />
In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
<br />
Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br />
<br />
Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
<br />
So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
<br />
Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
<br />
回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
<br />
The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
<br />
(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
<br />
“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
<br />
(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
<br />
The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br />
<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
<br />
刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
<br />
许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
=Contemporary Translation Studies=<br />
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
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'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br />
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'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
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'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
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'''Introduction:'''<br />
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In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br />
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'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
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Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br />
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“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
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In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br />
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In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br />
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“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br />
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
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However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
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Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br />
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Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br />
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Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br />
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Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br />
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
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'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
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As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
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Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
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Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br />
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The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
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“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
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It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br />
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Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
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It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
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Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
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Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
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'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
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'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
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Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
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'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
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Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br />
<br />
'''Conclusion:'''<br />
<br />
All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Works Cited'''<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br />
<br />
Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br />
<br />
Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br />
<br />
Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br />
<br />
Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br />
<br />
Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br />
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br />
<br />
Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br />
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br />
<br />
'''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br />
<br />
奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''"dynamic equivalence" and "reader's response theory"''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''"'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''"''' (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''"'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''"''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''"Nida Phenomenon"'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br />
<br />
'''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
<br />
According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br />
<br />
Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br />
<br />
Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br />
<br />
2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br />
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3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br />
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3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br />
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4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br />
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In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br />
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Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br />
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===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
<br />
As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br />
<br />
As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br />
<br />
As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br />
<br />
The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br />
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Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br />
<br />
Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br />
<br />
Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br />
<br />
The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br />
<br />
1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br />
<br />
'''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br />
<br />
2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br />
<br />
2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br />
<br />
====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br />
<br />
The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br />
<br />
1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br />
<br />
2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br />
<br />
3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br />
<br />
====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br />
<br />
The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br />
<br />
Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br />
<br />
====Summary====<br />
<br />
According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br />
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As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br />
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'''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br />
<br />
As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br />
<br />
It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br />
<br />
However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br />
<br />
In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）<br />
<br />
In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br />
<br />
Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br />
<br />
Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br />
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=====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br />
<br />
After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br />
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Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
<br />
From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br />
<br />
However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br />
<br />
Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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Eugene A. Nida & Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br />
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Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br />
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Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br />
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Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br />
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Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br />
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Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&魏向清&赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br />
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Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br />
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Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br />
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Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br />
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Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br />
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Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br />
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Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br />
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Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br />
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Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br />
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Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br />
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Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br />
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Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br />
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Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong.张美芳&钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能"概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br />
<br />
'''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br />
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===摘要=== <br />
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br />
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Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br />
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From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
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The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br />
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The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br />
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However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br />
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====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br />
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Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br />
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Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br />
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ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br />
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Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br />
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The Pre-research Period<br />
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From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br />
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From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The Experimental Psychology Period<br />
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From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br />
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From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br />
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The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The Renewal Period<br />
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It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
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It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br />
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Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br />
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Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br />
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Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br />
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Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br />
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The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
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====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br />
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The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br />
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During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s<br />
<br />
Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century<br />
<br />
With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br />
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br />
<br />
During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br />
<br />
At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br />
<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br />
<br />
Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br />
<br />
Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br />
*【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br />
*【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
*【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br />
*【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
*【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br />
<br />
==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br />
<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br />
<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br />
<br />
This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br />
<br />
===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br />
<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.<br />
<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br />
<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br />
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br />
<br />
The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br />
<br />
As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br />
<br />
The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br />
<br />
His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br />
<br />
After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br />
<br />
It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br />
<br />
In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br />
<br />
The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br />
<br />
In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win). <br />
<br />
It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br />
<br />
Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br />
<br />
The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
<br />
At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons." <br />
<br />
The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br />
<br />
Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br />
<br />
===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br />
<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br />
<br />
All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br />
<br />
The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br />
<br />
Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br />
<br />
"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br />
<br />
===IV.Conclusion===<br />
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br />
<br />
Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br />
<br />
Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br />
<br />
Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br />
<br />
Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br />
<br />
Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br />
<br />
Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br />
<br />
Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br />
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br />
===题目===<br />
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br />
<br />
===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br />
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br />
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J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br />
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He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br />
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In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br />
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In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br />
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Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
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The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br />
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The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
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Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br />
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The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br />
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Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
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Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
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As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br />
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Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br />
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The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
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In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
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Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
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Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
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Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
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====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br />
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In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
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As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
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Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br />
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As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br />
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Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
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All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
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2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
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Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br />
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When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br />
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As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
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In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
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In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br />
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Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br />
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Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br />
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====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br />
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br />
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It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br />
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Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br />
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The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br />
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Examples of homophonic pun:<br />
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Example 1:<br />
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br />
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Example 2:<br />
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br />
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Example 3:<br />
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br />
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There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br />
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Examples of homographic pun:<br />
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Example 4:<br />
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br />
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Example 5:<br />
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br />
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Example 6:<br />
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br />
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There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br />
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Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br />
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Examples of palindrome:<br />
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Example 7:<br />
*Madam，I’ m Adam.<br />
*No x in Nixon.<br />
*上海自来水来自海上。<br />
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These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br />
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Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br />
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The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br />
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Example 8:<br />
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br />
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From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br />
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2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br />
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Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br />
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Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br />
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The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br />
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Example 9:<br />
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br />
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*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br />
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*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br />
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*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br />
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In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br />
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However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br />
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The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br />
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Example 10:<br />
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br />
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br />
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The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br />
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Example 11:<br />
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br />
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*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br />
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*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br />
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*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br />
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These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br />
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All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br />
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===3.Conclusion===<br />
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br />
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All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br />
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===References===<br />
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br />
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br />
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br />
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br />
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br />
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br />
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r ><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br />
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=== Key Words ===<br />
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br />
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=== 题目 ===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br />
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=== 关键词 ===<br />
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br />
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=== Introduction ===<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br />
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Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br />
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Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br />
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For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br />
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In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
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In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br />
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In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
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In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br />
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=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br />
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br />
=== 1.1Color === <br />
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br />
=== 1.1.1Red=== <br />
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Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
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In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
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In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br />
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For example, what we say in Chinese "红茶" is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.2Yellow=== <br />
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Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br />
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.3Green=== <br />
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br />
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So in Chinese "envy" or "against the pink eye" in English should be green - eyed, "red eye" in the Chinese into English in the "green eyes", and if it is translated into "red - eyed" that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical "jealous" in English is called "pink eyes". In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means "new person," while a greenhorn means "someone with no experience" or "someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs."(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.2Animal=== <br />
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br />
=== 1.2.1Dog=== <br />
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br />
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br />
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br />
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br />
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br />
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br />
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br />
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7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br />
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br />
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9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br />
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10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br />
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br />
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br />
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br />
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br />
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br />
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br />
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br />
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br />
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br />
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br />
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
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=== 1.2.2Dragon=== <br />
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br />
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br />
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br />
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br />
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br />
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Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.Coping Strategies=== <br />
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br />
=== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br />
=== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br />
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br />
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Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br />
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Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br />
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
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In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br />
=== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br />
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br />
=== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br />
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
=== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br />
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br />
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===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br />
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Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br />
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br />
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Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance". <br />
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Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of "If you are the hypeone" in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause "You can rest assured" was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret "lawful assistance" directly as "giving you guidance".--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br />
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ". <br />
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And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br />
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Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br />
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Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br />
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Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.<br />
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Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br />
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Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br />
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Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese "Meaning association". However, English attaches great importance to "speech and communication", and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.<br />
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On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br />
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Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br />
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In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br />
<br />
*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br />
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*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br />
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*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br />
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*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br />
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*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br />
--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br />
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<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br />
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===题目===<br />
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br />
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===摘要===<br />
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br />
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Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br />
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Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br />
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===2.1 Ideology===<br />
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Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br />
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Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2.2 Poetics===<br />
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Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br />
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According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===2.3 Patronage===<br />
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Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br />
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Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br />
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Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===3.Cases Study===<br />
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===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br />
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Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br />
English version: Hewlett and Packard<br />
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br />
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br />
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Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
<br />
Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br />
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br />
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
<br />
Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) <br />
<br />
In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
(Act II, Scene IV)<br />
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br />
To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br />
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br />
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br />
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br />
<br />
Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br />
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br />
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
<br />
Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br />
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br />
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br />
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br />
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br />
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br />
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br />
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br />
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br />
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br />
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br />
(Act I, Scene I)<br />
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br />
I would prefer him to a better place.<br />
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br />
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br />
<br />
Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
<br />
Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br />
<br />
Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.<br />
<br />
Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br />
<br />
Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.<br />
<br />
Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.<br />
<br />
Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.<br />
<br />
Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.<br />
<br />
Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.<br />
<br />
==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br />
<br />
<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br />
<br />
===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br />
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br />
Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br />
<br />
Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br />
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br />
<br />
All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
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===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br />
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br />
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）''' <br />
Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br />
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According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br />
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====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br />
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''<br />
Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br />
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According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''<br />
next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br />
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Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br />
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The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. <br />
In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br />
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It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br />
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====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br />
It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br />
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===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br />
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''<br />
As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br />
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Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br />
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====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''<br />
It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br />
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Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br />
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====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br />
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===References===<br />
Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br />
<br />
Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br />
<br />
Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br />
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Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br />
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Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br />
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Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br />
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Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called "zero translation", is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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(2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
(1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
(3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br />
<br />
==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br />
'''<br />
Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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'''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
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This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
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====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
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However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and is presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauties Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformations Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purposes Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblances Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
The "Three-Beauties Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound." Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong suggested: "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
"Three-Resemblance" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Three-Resemblances Theory" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences in languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu employed the math equation to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblances" as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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"Three-Transformations Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauties Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformations Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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"Three-Purposes Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauties Theory", "Three-Resemblances Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauties Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauties Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauties Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformations Theory", "Three-Purposes Theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he points out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformations Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauties theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformations Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purposes Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.” <br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' (这样空格) Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. （空格）From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. （句点） It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.(句点)（Zhang Delu 2009,15）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. （空格）Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. （这句话除了开头单词首字母，其他单词首字母都要小写）Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, to media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. (空格)Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br />
<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. （句点） It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br />
<br />
===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br />
<br />
====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br />
<br />
====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology, (1):22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br />
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Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly, (2):191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br />
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李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br />
<br />
Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br />
<br />
Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br />
<br />
Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br />
Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
<br />
摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br />
中西文化史比较<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)<br />
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br />
<br />
In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
<br />
Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Difference==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
<br />
There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)<br />
<br />
The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
<br />
*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
<br />
*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=116066History of Translation Studies 32020-12-19T16:11:21Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* 1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory */</p>
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<br />
=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br />
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br />
<br />
==Key words==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br />
<br />
==(1)Introduction==<br />
<br />
===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
<br />
===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
<br />
Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
<br />
Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
<br />
Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
<br />
==II.Similarities and Differences==<br />
<br />
===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
<br />
While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
<br />
'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
<br />
Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
<br />
Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
<br />
In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
<br />
However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br />
<br />
Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
<br />
In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
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Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
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'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
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'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
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'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
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Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
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Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
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'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
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First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
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In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
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'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
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'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
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Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
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Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
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Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
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'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
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Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
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Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
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Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
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'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
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There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
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'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
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Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
<br />
Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br />
<br />
Bibliography：<br />
<br />
[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br />
<br />
[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br />
<br />
[6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br />
<br />
[7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br />
<br />
[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br />
<br />
[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br />
<br />
[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br />
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[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br />
<br />
=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
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近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br />
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br />
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br />
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'''Key words'''<br />
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br />
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'''Introduction'''<br />
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'''Research background'''<br />
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Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
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'''Significance of the study'''<br />
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By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
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This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
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'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
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'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
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'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
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The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
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Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
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“总统的史学家......”<br />
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It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
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From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br />
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Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
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It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
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'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
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This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br />
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Example：“车来了！”<br />
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“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
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The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
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It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
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'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br />
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'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
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The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
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The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
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The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br />
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The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
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'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
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Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
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'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
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In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
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'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
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In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
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''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
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Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
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Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
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无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
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If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
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'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
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Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
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Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
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这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
<br />
This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br />
<br />
'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
<br />
Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
<br />
Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
<br />
OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
<br />
农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
<br />
开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
<br />
The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br />
<br />
There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
<br />
'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
<br />
This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
<br />
'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
<br />
The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
<br />
German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
<br />
'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
<br />
But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
<br />
'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
<br />
Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
<br />
Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
<br />
The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
<br />
Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
<br />
Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion''' <br />
<br />
By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography'''<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London & New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br />
<br />
Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br />
<br />
Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br />
<br />
陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br />
<br />
范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br />
<br />
李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br />
<br />
张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br />
<br />
张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br />
<br />
张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br />
<br />
=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
<br />
'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
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The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br />
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'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
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<br />
'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br />
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Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
<br />
(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br />
<br />
“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br />
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In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br />
<br />
From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
<br />
S: “white as snow”<br />
<br />
T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
<br />
From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
<br />
Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br />
<br />
(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br />
<br />
On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
<br />
'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
<br />
According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
<br />
The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br />
<br />
'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br />
<br />
[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br />
<br />
[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br />
<br />
[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br />
<br />
[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br />
<br />
[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br />
<br />
[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br />
<br />
[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br />
<br />
[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br />
<br />
=Theory and Practise=<br />
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
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'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br />
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'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br />
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'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br />
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'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br />
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A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
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So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
<br />
From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
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'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
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A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
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According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
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“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br />
<br />
In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
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(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
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(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
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Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
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B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
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Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
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C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
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Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
<br />
Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
<br />
Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
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D.Venuti<br />
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Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
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“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
<br />
Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br />
<br />
Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br />
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To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br />
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II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
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A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
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In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
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Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
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Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
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From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
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江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
<br />
江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
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Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
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他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
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他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
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(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
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Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
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The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
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顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
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Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
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Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
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Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
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B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br />
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In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
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Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
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In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
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Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br />
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Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
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So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
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Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
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回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
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The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
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(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
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“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
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(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
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The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br />
<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
<br />
刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
<br />
许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
=Contemporary Translation Studies=<br />
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
<br />
'''Introduction:'''<br />
<br />
In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
<br />
Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br />
<br />
“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
<br />
In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br />
<br />
In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br />
<br />
“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br />
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
<br />
However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
<br />
Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br />
<br />
Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br />
<br />
Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br />
<br />
Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br />
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
<br />
Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br />
<br />
The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
<br />
It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br />
<br />
Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
<br />
It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
<br />
Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
<br />
<br />
'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
<br />
Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
<br />
'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
<br />
Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br />
<br />
'''Conclusion:'''<br />
<br />
All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Works Cited'''<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br />
<br />
Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br />
<br />
Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br />
<br />
Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br />
<br />
Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br />
<br />
Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br />
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br />
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Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br />
<br />
Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br />
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br />
<br />
'''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br />
<br />
奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''"dynamic equivalence" and "reader's response theory"''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''"'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''"''' (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''"'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''"''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''"Nida Phenomenon"'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br />
<br />
'''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br />
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Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br />
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Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br />
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2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br />
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3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br />
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3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br />
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4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br />
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In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br />
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Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br />
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===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br />
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As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br />
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As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br />
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The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br />
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Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br />
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The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br />
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1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br />
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'''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br />
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====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br />
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The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br />
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1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br />
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2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br />
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3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br />
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====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br />
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The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br />
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Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br />
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====Summary====<br />
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According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br />
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As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br />
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'''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br />
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It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br />
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=====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br />
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=====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br />
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Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br />
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Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br />
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=====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br />
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After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br />
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The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br />
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Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br />
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However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br />
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Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. (2015). 政府公文英译浅析新编奈达论翻译 [On the English Translation of Government Documents].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(06): 81-87.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida & Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br />
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Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br />
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Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br />
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Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br />
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Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br />
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Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&魏向清&赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br />
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Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br />
<br />
Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br />
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Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br />
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Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br />
<br />
Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br />
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Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br />
<br />
Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br />
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Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br />
<br />
Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br />
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Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br />
<br />
Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong.张美芳&钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能"概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br />
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'''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br />
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==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br />
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===摘要=== <br />
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br />
<br />
Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br />
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Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br />
<br />
Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br />
<br />
From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
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<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br />
<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br />
<br />
<br />
However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br />
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====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br />
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Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br />
<br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br />
<br />
ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br />
<br />
Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br />
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The Pre-research Period<br />
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From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br />
<br />
From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The Experimental Psychology Period<br />
<br />
From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br />
<br />
From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br />
<br />
The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The Renewal Period<br />
<br />
It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
<br />
It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br />
<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br />
<br />
Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br />
<br />
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br />
<br />
The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
<br />
====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br />
<br />
The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s<br />
<br />
Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century<br />
<br />
With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br />
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br />
<br />
During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br />
<br />
At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br />
<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br />
<br />
Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br />
<br />
Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br />
*【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br />
*【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
*【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br />
*【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
*【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br />
<br />
==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br />
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History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题目===<br />
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br />
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===摘要===<br />
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br />
<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br />
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And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br />
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And "André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br />
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This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br />
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===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br />
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====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br />
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During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br />
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During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
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At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
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The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.<br />
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In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
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The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br />
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China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.<br />
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A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br />
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On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br />
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In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br />
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br />
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The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br />
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As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br />
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The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br />
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His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br />
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Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br />
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After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br />
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It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br />
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====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br />
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In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br />
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The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br />
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In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win). <br />
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It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br />
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====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br />
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Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br />
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The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
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Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
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At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons." <br />
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The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br />
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Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br />
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The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br />
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===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br />
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====1.The first translation climax====<br />
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br />
<br />
All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br />
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The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br />
<br />
Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br />
<br />
"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br />
<br />
===IV.Conclusion===<br />
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br />
<br />
Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br />
<br />
Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br />
<br />
Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br />
<br />
Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br />
<br />
Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br />
<br />
Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br />
<br />
Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br />
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br />
===题目===<br />
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br />
<br />
===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br />
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br />
<br />
He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br />
<br />
In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br />
<br />
In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br />
<br />
When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br />
<br />
As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br />
<br />
Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br />
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br />
<br />
It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br />
<br />
Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br />
<br />
Examples of homophonic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br />
<br />
There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br />
<br />
Examples of homographic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br />
<br />
There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br />
<br />
Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br />
<br />
Examples of palindrome:<br />
<br />
Example 7:<br />
*Madam，I’ m Adam.<br />
*No x in Nixon.<br />
*上海自来水来自海上。<br />
<br />
These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br />
<br />
Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br />
<br />
The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br />
<br />
Example 8:<br />
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br />
<br />
From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br />
<br />
2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br />
<br />
Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br />
<br />
Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br />
<br />
The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 9:<br />
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br />
<br />
*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br />
<br />
*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br />
<br />
*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br />
<br />
The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br />
<br />
Example 10:<br />
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br />
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br />
<br />
The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 11:<br />
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br />
<br />
*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br />
<br />
*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br />
<br />
*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br />
<br />
These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br />
<br />
All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br />
<br />
All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br />
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br />
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br />
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br />
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br />
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br />
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r ><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br />
<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br />
<br />
Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br />
<br />
For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br />
<br />
In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br />
<br />
In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
<br />
In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br />
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=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br />
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br />
=== 1.1Color === <br />
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br />
=== 1.1.1Red=== <br />
<br />
Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
<br />
In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
<br />
In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br />
<br />
For example, what we say in Chinese "红茶" is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.2Yellow=== <br />
<br />
Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
<br />
Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br />
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br />
<br />
At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.3Green=== <br />
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br />
<br />
So in Chinese "envy" or "against the pink eye" in English should be green - eyed, "red eye" in the Chinese into English in the "green eyes", and if it is translated into "red - eyed" that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical "jealous" in English is called "pink eyes". In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means "new person," while a greenhorn means "someone with no experience" or "someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs."(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
=== 1.2Animal=== <br />
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br />
=== 1.2.1Dog=== <br />
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br />
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br />
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br />
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br />
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br />
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br />
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br />
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7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br />
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br />
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9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br />
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10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br />
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br />
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br />
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br />
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br />
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br />
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br />
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br />
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br />
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br />
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br />
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
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=== 1.2.2Dragon=== <br />
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br />
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br />
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br />
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br />
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br />
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Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.Coping Strategies=== <br />
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br />
=== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br />
=== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br />
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br />
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Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br />
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Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br />
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
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In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br />
=== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br />
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br />
=== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br />
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
=== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br />
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br />
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===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br />
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Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br />
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br />
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Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance". <br />
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Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of "If you are the hypeone" in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause "You can rest assured" was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret "lawful assistance" directly as "giving you guidance".--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br />
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ". <br />
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And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br />
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Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br />
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Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br />
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Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.<br />
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Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br />
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Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br />
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Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese "Meaning association". However, English attaches great importance to "speech and communication", and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.<br />
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On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br />
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Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br />
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In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br />
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*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br />
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*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br />
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*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br />
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*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br />
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*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br />
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*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br />
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*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br />
--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br />
<br />
<br />
<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br />
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===题目===<br />
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br />
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===摘要===<br />
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br />
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Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br />
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Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br />
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===2.1 Ideology===<br />
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Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br />
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Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2.2 Poetics===<br />
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Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br />
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According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===2.3 Patronage===<br />
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Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br />
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Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br />
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Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===3.Cases Study===<br />
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===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br />
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Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br />
English version: Hewlett and Packard<br />
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br />
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br />
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Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br />
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br />
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
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Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) <br />
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In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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(Act II, Scene IV)<br />
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br />
To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br />
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br />
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br />
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br />
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Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br />
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br />
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
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Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br />
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br />
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br />
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br />
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br />
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br />
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br />
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br />
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br />
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br />
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br />
(Act I, Scene I)<br />
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br />
I would prefer him to a better place.<br />
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br />
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
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===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br />
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Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
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Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
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Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br />
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Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
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Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
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Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.<br />
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Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br />
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Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.<br />
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Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.<br />
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Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.<br />
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Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.<br />
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Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.<br />
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Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.<br />
<br />
==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br />
<br />
<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br />
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===题目===<br />
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br />
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===摘要===<br />
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br />
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===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br />
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br />
Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br />
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Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br />
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====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br />
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br />
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Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br />
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All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
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===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br />
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br />
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）''' <br />
Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br />
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According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br />
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====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br />
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''<br />
Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br />
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According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''<br />
next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br />
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Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br />
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The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. <br />
In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br />
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It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br />
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====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br />
It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br />
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===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br />
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''<br />
As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br />
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Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br />
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====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''<br />
It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br />
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Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br />
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====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br />
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Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br />
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Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br />
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Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br />
<br />
Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called "zero translation", is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Equivalence====<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Shifts====<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Limits of Translatability====<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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(2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
(1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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(3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br />
<br />
==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br />
'''<br />
Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
'''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and is presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauties Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformations Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purposes Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblances Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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The "Three-Beauties Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound." Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggested: "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
"Three-Resemblance" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Three-Resemblances Theory" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences in languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu employed the math equation to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblances" as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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"Three-Transformations Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauties Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformations Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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"Three-Purposes Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauties Theory", "Three-Resemblances Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauties Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauties Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauties Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformations Theory", "Three-Purposes Theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
<br />
Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he points out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformations Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauties theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformations Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purposes Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
<br />
Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.” <br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' (这样空格) Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. （空格）From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. （句点） It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.(句点)（Zhang Delu 2009,15）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. （空格）Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. （这句话除了开头单词首字母，其他单词首字母都要小写）Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, to media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. (空格)Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br />
<br />
===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br />
<br />
====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br />
<br />
====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology, (1):22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br />
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Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly, (2):191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br />
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李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br />
<br />
Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br />
<br />
Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br />
<br />
Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br />
Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
<br />
摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br />
中西文化史比较<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br />
<br />
The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br />
<br />
The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
<br />
After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br />
<br />
==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br />
<br />
The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)<br />
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)<br />
<br />
The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
<br />
The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br />
<br />
The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br />
<br />
When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br />
<br />
In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
<br />
Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Difference==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
<br />
There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)<br />
<br />
The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
<br />
*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
<br />
*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=116060History of Translation Studies 32020-12-19T16:05:14Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* Introduction */</p>
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<br />
=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br />
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br />
<br />
==Key words==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br />
<br />
==(1)Introduction==<br />
<br />
===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
<br />
===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
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Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
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Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
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Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
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Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
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==II.Similarities and Differences==<br />
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===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br />
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'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
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Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
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While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
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'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
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Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
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In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
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'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
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'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
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From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
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Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br />
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'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
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Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
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In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
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'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
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In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
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However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br />
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Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
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'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
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In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
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Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
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'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
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'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
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'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
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Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
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Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
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'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
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First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
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In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
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'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
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'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
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Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
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Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
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Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
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'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
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Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
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Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
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Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
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'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
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There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
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'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
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Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
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Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br />
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Bibliography：<br />
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[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
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[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br />
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[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br />
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[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br />
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[6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br />
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[7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br />
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[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br />
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[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br />
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[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br />
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[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br />
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=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br />
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'''摘要'''<br />
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近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br />
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br />
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br />
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'''Key words'''<br />
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br />
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'''Introduction'''<br />
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'''Research background'''<br />
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Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
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'''Significance of the study'''<br />
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By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
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This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
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'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
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'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
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'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
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The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
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Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
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“总统的史学家......”<br />
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It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
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From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br />
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Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
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It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
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'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
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This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br />
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Example：“车来了！”<br />
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“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
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The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
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It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
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'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br />
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'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
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The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
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The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
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The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br />
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The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
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'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
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Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
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'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
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In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
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'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
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In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
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''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
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Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
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Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
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无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
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If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
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'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
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Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
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Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
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这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
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This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br />
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'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
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Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
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Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
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OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
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农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
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开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
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The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br />
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There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
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'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
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This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
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'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
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The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
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German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
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'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
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Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
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But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
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'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
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Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
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Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
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'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
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'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
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The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
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Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
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'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
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Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
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'''Conclusion''' <br />
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By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography'''<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London & New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br />
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Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br />
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Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br />
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Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br />
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陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br />
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范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br />
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李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br />
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张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br />
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张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br />
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张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br />
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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==<br />
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'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
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'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
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'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
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Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
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<br />
'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
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The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br />
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'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
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<br />
'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br />
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Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
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(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br />
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“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br />
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In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br />
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From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
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S: “white as snow”<br />
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T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
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Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br />
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(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br />
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On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
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'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
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According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
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'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
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The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br />
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'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
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Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
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'''References'''<br />
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[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br />
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[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br />
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[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br />
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[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br />
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[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br />
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[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
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[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br />
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[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br />
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[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br />
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[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br />
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=Theory and Practise=<br />
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br />
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'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
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'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br />
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'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br />
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'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br />
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'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br />
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A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
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So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
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From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
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'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
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A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
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According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
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“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br />
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In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
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(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
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(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
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Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
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B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
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Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
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C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
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Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
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Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
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Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
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D.Venuti<br />
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Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
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“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
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Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br />
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Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br />
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To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br />
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II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
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A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
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In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
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Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
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Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
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From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
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江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
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江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
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And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
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Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
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他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
<br />
他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
<br />
(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
<br />
Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
<br />
The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
<br />
顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
<br />
Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
<br />
Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
<br />
Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
<br />
B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br />
<br />
In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
<br />
Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
<br />
In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
<br />
Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br />
<br />
Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
<br />
So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
<br />
Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
<br />
回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
<br />
The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
<br />
(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
<br />
“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
<br />
(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
<br />
The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br />
<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
<br />
刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
<br />
许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
=Contemporary Translation Studies=<br />
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
<br />
'''Introduction:'''<br />
<br />
In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
<br />
Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br />
<br />
“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
<br />
In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br />
<br />
In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br />
<br />
“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br />
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
<br />
However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
<br />
Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br />
<br />
Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br />
<br />
Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br />
<br />
Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br />
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
<br />
Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br />
<br />
The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
<br />
It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br />
<br />
Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
<br />
It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
<br />
Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
<br />
<br />
'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
<br />
Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
<br />
'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
<br />
Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br />
<br />
'''Conclusion:'''<br />
<br />
All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Works Cited'''<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br />
<br />
Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br />
<br />
Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br />
<br />
Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br />
<br />
Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br />
<br />
Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br />
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br />
<br />
Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br />
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br />
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Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Keywords===<br />
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Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br />
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'''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===题目===<br />
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论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br />
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尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br />
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奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br />
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Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''"dynamic equivalence" and "reader's response theory"''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br />
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Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''"'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''"''' (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''"'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''"''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br />
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In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''"Nida Phenomenon"'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br />
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Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
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This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
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This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br />
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The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br />
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'''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br />
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Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br />
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Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br />
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2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br />
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3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br />
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3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br />
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4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br />
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In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br />
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Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br />
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===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
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As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br />
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As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br />
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As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br />
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The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br />
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Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br />
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Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br />
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The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br />
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1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br />
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'''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br />
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2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br />
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====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br />
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The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br />
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1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br />
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2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br />
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3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br />
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====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br />
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The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br />
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Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br />
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====Summary====<br />
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According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br />
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As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br />
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'''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br />
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It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br />
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=====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）<br />
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In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br />
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=====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br />
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Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br />
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Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br />
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=====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br />
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After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br />
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The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br />
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Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br />
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However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br />
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Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. (2015). 政府公文英译浅析新编奈达论翻译 [On the English Translation of Government Documents].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(06): 81-87.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida & Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br />
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Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br />
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Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br />
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Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br />
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Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br />
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Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&魏向清&赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br />
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Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br />
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Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br />
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Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br />
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Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br />
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Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br />
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Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br />
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Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br />
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Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br />
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Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br />
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Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br />
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Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br />
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Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br />
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Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong.张美芳&钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能"概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br />
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'''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br />
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==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br />
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<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br />
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===摘要=== <br />
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br />
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Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br />
<br />
From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
<br />
<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br />
<br />
The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br />
<br />
<br />
However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br />
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====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br />
<br />
Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br />
<br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br />
<br />
Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br />
<br />
ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br />
<br />
Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br />
<br />
The Pre-research Period<br />
<br />
From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br />
<br />
From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
The Experimental Psychology Period<br />
<br />
From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br />
<br />
From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br />
<br />
The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
The Renewal Period<br />
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It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
<br />
It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br />
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Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br />
<br />
<br />
Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br />
<br />
Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br />
<br />
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br />
<br />
The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
<br />
====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br />
<br />
The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s<br />
<br />
Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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<br />
The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century<br />
<br />
With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br />
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br />
<br />
During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br />
<br />
At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br />
<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br />
<br />
Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br />
<br />
Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br />
*【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br />
*【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
*【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br />
*【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
*【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br />
<br />
==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br />
<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br />
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===摘要===<br />
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br />
<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br />
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This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br />
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===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br />
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====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br />
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During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.<br />
<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br />
<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br />
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br />
<br />
The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br />
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As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br />
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The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br />
<br />
His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br />
<br />
After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br />
<br />
It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br />
<br />
In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br />
<br />
The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br />
<br />
In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win). <br />
<br />
It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br />
<br />
Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br />
<br />
The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
<br />
At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons." <br />
<br />
The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br />
<br />
Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br />
<br />
===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br />
<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br />
<br />
All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br />
<br />
The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br />
<br />
Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br />
<br />
"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br />
<br />
===IV.Conclusion===<br />
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br />
<br />
Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br />
<br />
Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br />
<br />
Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br />
<br />
Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br />
<br />
Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br />
<br />
Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br />
<br />
Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br />
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br />
===题目===<br />
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br />
<br />
===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br />
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br />
<br />
He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br />
<br />
In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br />
<br />
In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br />
<br />
Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br />
<br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br />
<br />
When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br />
<br />
As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br />
<br />
Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br />
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br />
<br />
It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br />
<br />
Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br />
<br />
Examples of homophonic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br />
<br />
There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br />
<br />
Examples of homographic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br />
<br />
There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br />
<br />
Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br />
<br />
Examples of palindrome:<br />
<br />
Example 7:<br />
*Madam，I’ m Adam.<br />
*No x in Nixon.<br />
*上海自来水来自海上。<br />
<br />
These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br />
<br />
Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br />
<br />
The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br />
<br />
Example 8:<br />
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br />
<br />
From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br />
<br />
2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br />
<br />
Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br />
<br />
Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br />
<br />
The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 9:<br />
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br />
<br />
*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br />
<br />
*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br />
<br />
*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br />
<br />
The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br />
<br />
Example 10:<br />
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br />
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br />
<br />
The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 11:<br />
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br />
<br />
*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br />
<br />
*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br />
<br />
*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br />
<br />
These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br />
<br />
All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br />
<br />
All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br />
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br />
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br />
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br />
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br />
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br />
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r ><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br />
<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br />
<br />
Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br />
<br />
For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br />
<br />
In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br />
<br />
In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
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In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br />
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=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br />
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br />
=== 1.1Color === <br />
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br />
=== 1.1.1Red=== <br />
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Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
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In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
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In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br />
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For example, what we say in Chinese "红茶" is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.2Yellow=== <br />
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Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br />
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.3Green=== <br />
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br />
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So in Chinese "envy" or "against the pink eye" in English should be green - eyed, "red eye" in the Chinese into English in the "green eyes", and if it is translated into "red - eyed" that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical "jealous" in English is called "pink eyes". In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means "new person," while a greenhorn means "someone with no experience" or "someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs."(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.2Animal=== <br />
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br />
=== 1.2.1Dog=== <br />
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br />
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br />
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br />
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br />
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br />
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br />
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br />
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7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br />
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br />
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9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br />
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10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br />
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br />
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br />
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br />
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br />
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br />
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br />
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br />
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br />
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br />
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br />
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
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=== 1.2.2Dragon=== <br />
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br />
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br />
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br />
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br />
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br />
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Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.Coping Strategies=== <br />
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br />
=== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br />
=== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br />
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br />
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Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br />
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Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br />
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
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In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br />
=== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br />
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br />
=== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br />
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
=== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br />
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br />
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===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br />
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Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br />
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br />
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Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance". <br />
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Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of "If you are the hypeone" in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause "You can rest assured" was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret "lawful assistance" directly as "giving you guidance".--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br />
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ". <br />
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And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br />
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Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br />
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Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br />
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Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.<br />
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Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br />
<br />
Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br />
<br />
Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese "Meaning association". However, English attaches great importance to "speech and communication", and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.<br />
<br />
On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br />
<br />
In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br />
<br />
*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br />
<br />
*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br />
<br />
*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br />
<br />
<br />
*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br />
--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br />
<br />
<br />
<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br />
<br />
Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
<br />
The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
<br />
In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
<br />
===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Ideology===<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
<br />
Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br />
<br />
Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Poetics===<br />
<br />
Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br />
<br />
According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Patronage===<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br />
<br />
Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br />
<br />
Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
<br />
===3.Cases Study===<br />
<br />
===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br />
<br />
Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
<br />
Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
<br />
Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
<br />
Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
<br />
Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br />
English version: Hewlett and Packard<br />
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br />
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br />
<br />
Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
<br />
Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br />
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br />
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
<br />
Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) <br />
<br />
In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
(Act II, Scene IV)<br />
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br />
To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br />
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br />
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br />
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br />
<br />
Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br />
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br />
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
<br />
Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br />
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br />
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br />
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br />
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br />
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br />
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br />
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br />
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br />
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br />
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br />
(Act I, Scene I)<br />
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br />
I would prefer him to a better place.<br />
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br />
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br />
<br />
Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
<br />
Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br />
<br />
Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.<br />
<br />
Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br />
<br />
Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.<br />
<br />
Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.<br />
<br />
Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.<br />
<br />
Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.<br />
<br />
Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.<br />
<br />
==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br />
<br />
<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br />
<br />
===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br />
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br />
Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br />
<br />
Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br />
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br />
<br />
All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
<br />
===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br />
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br />
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）''' <br />
Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br />
<br />
According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br />
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''<br />
Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br />
<br />
According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''<br />
next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br />
<br />
The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. <br />
In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br />
<br />
It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br />
It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br />
<br />
===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br />
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''<br />
As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br />
<br />
Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''<br />
It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br />
<br />
Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br />
<br />
Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br />
<br />
Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br />
<br />
Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called "zero translation", is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Equivalence====<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Shifts====<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Limits of Translatability====<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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(2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
(1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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(3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br />
<br />
==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br />
'''<br />
Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
'''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and is presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
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For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
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But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauties Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformations Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purposes Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblances Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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The "Three-Beauties Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound." Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggested: "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
"Three-Resemblance" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Three-Resemblances Theory" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences in languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu employed the math equation to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblances" as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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"Three-Transformations Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauties Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformations Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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"Three-Purposes Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauties Theory", "Three-Resemblances Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauties Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauties Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauties Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformations Theory", "Three-Purposes Theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he points out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformations Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauties theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformations Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purposes Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
<br />
Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.” <br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' (这样空格) Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. （空格）From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. （句点） It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br />
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====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br />
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===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br />
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====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br />
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====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br />
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=====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br />
Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br />
中西文化史比较<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)<br />
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
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==Difference==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
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In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Yang Zilinghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=116043History of Translation Studies 32020-12-19T15:53:23Z<p>Yang Ziling: /* ABSTRACT */</p>
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<br />
=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br />
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br />
<br />
==Key words==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br />
<br />
==(1)Introduction==<br />
<br />
===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
<br />
===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
<br />
Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
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Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
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Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
<br />
Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
<br />
==II.Similarities and Differences==<br />
<br />
===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
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Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
<br />
While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
<br />
'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
<br />
Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
<br />
Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
<br />
In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
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However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br />
<br />
Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
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In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
<br />
'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
<br />
'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
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Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
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Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
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'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
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First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
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In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
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'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
<br />
'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
<br />
Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
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Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
<br />
'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
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'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
<br />
Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br />
<br />
Bibliography：<br />
<br />
[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br />
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[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br />
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[6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br />
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[7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br />
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[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br />
<br />
[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br />
<br />
[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br />
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[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br />
<br />
=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br />
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br />
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br />
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'''Key words'''<br />
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
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'''Research background'''<br />
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Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
<br />
'''Significance of the study'''<br />
<br />
By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
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This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
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'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
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'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
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'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
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The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
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Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
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“总统的史学家......”<br />
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It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
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From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br />
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Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
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It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
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'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
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This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br />
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Example：“车来了！”<br />
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“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
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The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
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It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
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'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br />
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'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
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The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
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The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
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The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br />
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The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
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'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
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Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
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'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
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In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
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'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
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In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
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''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
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Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
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Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
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无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
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If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
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'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
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Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
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Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
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这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
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This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br />
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'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
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Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
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Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
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OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
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农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
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开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
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The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br />
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There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
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'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
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This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
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'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
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The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
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German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
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'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
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Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
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But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
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'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
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Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
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Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
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'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
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'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
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The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
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Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
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'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
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Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
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'''Conclusion''' <br />
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By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography'''<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London & New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br />
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Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br />
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Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br />
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Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br />
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陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br />
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范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br />
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李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br />
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张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br />
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张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br />
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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==<br />
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'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
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'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
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'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
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Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
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'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
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The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br />
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'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
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'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br />
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Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
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(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br />
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“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br />
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In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br />
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From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
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S: “white as snow”<br />
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T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
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Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br />
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(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br />
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On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
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'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
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According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
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'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
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The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br />
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'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
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Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
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'''References'''<br />
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[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br />
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[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br />
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[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br />
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[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br />
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[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br />
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[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
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[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br />
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[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br />
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[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br />
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[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br />
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=Theory and Practise=<br />
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br />
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'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
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'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br />
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'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br />
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'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br />
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'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br />
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A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
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So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
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From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
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'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
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A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
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According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
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“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br />
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In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
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(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
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(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
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Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
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B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
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Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
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C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
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Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
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Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
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Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
<br />
D.Venuti<br />
<br />
Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
<br />
“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
<br />
Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br />
<br />
Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br />
<br />
To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br />
<br />
II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
<br />
A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
<br />
In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
<br />
Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
<br />
From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
<br />
江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
<br />
江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
<br />
Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
<br />
他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
<br />
他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
<br />
(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
<br />
Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
<br />
The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
<br />
顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
<br />
Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
<br />
Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
<br />
Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
<br />
B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br />
<br />
In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
<br />
Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
<br />
In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
<br />
Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br />
<br />
Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
<br />
So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
<br />
Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
<br />
回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
<br />
The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
<br />
(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
<br />
“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
<br />
(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
<br />
The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br />
<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
<br />
刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
<br />
许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
=Contemporary Translation Studies=<br />
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
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'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br />
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'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
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'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
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'''Introduction:'''<br />
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In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br />
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'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
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Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br />
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“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
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In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br />
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In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br />
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“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br />
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
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However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
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Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br />
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Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br />
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Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br />
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Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br />
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
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'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
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As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
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Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
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Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br />
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The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
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“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
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It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br />
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Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
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It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
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Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
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Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
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'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
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'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
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Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
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'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
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Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br />
<br />
'''Conclusion:'''<br />
<br />
All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Works Cited'''<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br />
<br />
Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br />
<br />
Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br />
<br />
Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br />
<br />
Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br />
<br />
Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br />
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br />
<br />
Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br />
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br />
<br />
'''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br />
<br />
奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''"dynamic equivalence" and "reader's response theory"''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''"'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''"''' (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''"'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''"''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''"Nida Phenomenon"'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br />
<br />
'''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
<br />
According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br />
<br />
Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br />
<br />
Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br />
<br />
2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br />
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3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br />
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3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br />
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4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br />
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In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br />
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Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br />
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===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br />
<br />
As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br />
<br />
As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br />
<br />
As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br />
<br />
The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br />
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Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br />
<br />
Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br />
<br />
Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br />
<br />
The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br />
<br />
1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br />
<br />
'''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br />
<br />
2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br />
<br />
2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br />
<br />
====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br />
<br />
The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br />
<br />
1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br />
<br />
2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br />
<br />
3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br />
<br />
====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br />
<br />
The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br />
<br />
Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br />
<br />
====Summary====<br />
<br />
According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br />
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As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br />
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'''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
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===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br />
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As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br />
<br />
As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
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The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br />
<br />
It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br />
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However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br />
<br />
However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br />
<br />
In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）<br />
<br />
In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br />
<br />
Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br />
<br />
Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br />
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=====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br />
<br />
After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br />
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Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
<br />
From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br />
<br />
However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br />
<br />
Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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Eugene A. Nida & Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br />
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Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br />
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Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br />
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Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br />
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Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br />
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Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br />
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Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br />
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Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&魏向清&赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br />
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Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br />
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Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br />
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Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br />
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Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br />
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Tu Guoyuan & Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br />
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Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br />
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Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br />
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Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br />
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Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br />
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Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br />
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Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br />
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Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong.张美芳&钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能"概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br />
<br />
'''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br />
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===摘要=== <br />
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br />
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Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br />
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Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br />
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Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br />
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From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
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The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br />
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The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br />
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However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br />
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====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br />
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Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br />
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br />
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Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br />
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br />
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Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br />
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ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br />
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Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br />
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br />
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br />
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The Pre-research Period<br />
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From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br />
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From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The Experimental Psychology Period<br />
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From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br />
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From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br />
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The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The Renewal Period<br />
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It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
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It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br />
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br />
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Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br />
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Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br />
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Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br />
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Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br />
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The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br />
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====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br />
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The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br />
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During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br />
<br />
During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s<br />
<br />
Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br />
<br />
During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century<br />
<br />
With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br />
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br />
<br />
During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br />
<br />
The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br />
<br />
From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br />
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br />
<br />
During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br />
<br />
And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br />
<br />
At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br />
<br />
<br />
The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
<br />
according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br />
<br />
Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
<br />
With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br />
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br />
<br />
Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br />
*【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br />
*【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br />
*【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br />
*【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br />
*【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br />
<br />
==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br />
<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br />
<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br />
<br />
And "André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br />
<br />
This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br />
<br />
===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br />
<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.<br />
<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br />
<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br />
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br />
<br />
The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br />
<br />
As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br />
<br />
The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br />
<br />
His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br />
<br />
After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br />
<br />
It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br />
<br />
In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br />
<br />
The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br />
<br />
In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win). <br />
<br />
It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br />
<br />
Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br />
<br />
The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br />
<br />
At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons." <br />
<br />
The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br />
<br />
Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br />
<br />
===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br />
<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br />
<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br />
<br />
All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br />
<br />
The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
<br />
"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br />
<br />
Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br />
<br />
"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br />
<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"<br />
<br />
In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br />
<br />
===IV.Conclusion===<br />
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br />
<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br />
<br />
Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br />
<br />
Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br />
<br />
Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br />
<br />
Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br />
<br />
Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br />
<br />
Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br />
<br />
Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br />
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br />
===题目===<br />
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br />
<br />
===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br />
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br />
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J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br />
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He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br />
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In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br />
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In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br />
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Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
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The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br />
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The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
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Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br />
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The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br />
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Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
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Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
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As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br />
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Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br />
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The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
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In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
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Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
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Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br />
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Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
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====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br />
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In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
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As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
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Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br />
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As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br />
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Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
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All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
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2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
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Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br />
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When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br />
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As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
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In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
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In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br />
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Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br />
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Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br />
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====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br />
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br />
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It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br />
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Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br />
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The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br />
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Examples of homophonic pun:<br />
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Example 1:<br />
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br />
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Example 2:<br />
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br />
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Example 3:<br />
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br />
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There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br />
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Examples of homographic pun:<br />
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Example 4:<br />
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br />
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Example 5:<br />
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br />
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Example 6:<br />
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br />
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There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br />
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Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br />
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Examples of palindrome:<br />
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Example 7:<br />
*Madam，I’ m Adam.<br />
*No x in Nixon.<br />
*上海自来水来自海上。<br />
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These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br />
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Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br />
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The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br />
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Example 8:<br />
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br />
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From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br />
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2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br />
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Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br />
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Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br />
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The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br />
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Example 9:<br />
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br />
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*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br />
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*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br />
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*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br />
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In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br />
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However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br />
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The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br />
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Example 10:<br />
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br />
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br />
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The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br />
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Example 11:<br />
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br />
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*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br />
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*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br />
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*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br />
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These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br />
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All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br />
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===3.Conclusion===<br />
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br />
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All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br />
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===References===<br />
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br />
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br />
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br />
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br />
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br />
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br />
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r ><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br />
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=== Key Words ===<br />
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br />
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=== 题目 ===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br />
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=== 关键词 ===<br />
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br />
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=== Introduction ===<br />
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br />
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Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br />
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Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br />
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For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br />
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In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
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In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br />
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In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br />
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In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br />
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=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br />
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br />
=== 1.1Color === <br />
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br />
=== 1.1.1Red=== <br />
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Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
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In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br />
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In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br />
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For example, what we say in Chinese "红茶" is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.2Yellow=== <br />
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Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br />
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br />
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At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.1.3Green=== <br />
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br />
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So in Chinese "envy" or "against the pink eye" in English should be green - eyed, "red eye" in the Chinese into English in the "green eyes", and if it is translated into "red - eyed" that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical "jealous" in English is called "pink eyes". In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means "new person," while a greenhorn means "someone with no experience" or "someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs."(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 1.2Animal=== <br />
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br />
=== 1.2.1Dog=== <br />
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br />
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br />
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br />
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br />
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br />
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br />
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br />
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7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br />
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br />
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9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br />
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10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br />
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br />
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br />
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br />
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br />
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br />
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br />
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br />
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br />
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br />
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br />
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br />
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=== 1.2.2Dragon=== <br />
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br />
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br />
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br />
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br />
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br />
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br />
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The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br />
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Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.Coping Strategies=== <br />
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br />
=== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br />
=== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br />
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br />
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At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br />
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Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br />
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Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br />
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
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In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br />
=== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br />
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br />
=== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br />
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br />
=== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br />
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br />
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===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br />
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Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br />
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br />
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Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance". <br />
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Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of "If you are the hypeone" in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause "You can rest assured" was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret "lawful assistance" directly as "giving you guidance".--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br />
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ". <br />
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And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br />
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Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br />
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Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br />
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Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br />
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Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.<br />
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Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br />
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Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br />
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Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese "Meaning association". However, English attaches great importance to "speech and communication", and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.<br />
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On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br />
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From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br />
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Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br />
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In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br />
<br />
*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br />
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*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br />
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*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br />
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*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br />
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*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br />
--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br />
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<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br />
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===题目===<br />
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br />
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===摘要===<br />
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br />
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Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br />
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Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br />
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===2.1 Ideology===<br />
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Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
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Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br />
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Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
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===2.2 Poetics===<br />
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Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br />
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According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===2.3 Patronage===<br />
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Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br />
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Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br />
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Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
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===3.Cases Study===<br />
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===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br />
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Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
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Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
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Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br />
English version: Hewlett and Packard<br />
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br />
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br />
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Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
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Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
<br />
Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br />
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br />
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
<br />
Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) <br />
<br />
In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
(Act II, Scene IV)<br />
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br />
To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br />
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br />
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br />
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br />
<br />
Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br />
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br />
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
<br />
By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
<br />
Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br />
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br />
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br />
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br />
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br />
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br />
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br />
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br />
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br />
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br />
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br />
(Act I, Scene I)<br />
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br />
I would prefer him to a better place.<br />
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br />
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br />
<br />
Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
<br />
Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br />
<br />
Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.<br />
<br />
Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br />
<br />
Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.<br />
<br />
Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.<br />
<br />
Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.<br />
<br />
Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.<br />
<br />
Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.<br />
<br />
==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br />
<br />
<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br />
<br />
===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br />
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br />
Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br />
<br />
Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br />
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br />
<br />
All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
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===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br />
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br />
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）''' <br />
Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br />
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According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br />
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====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br />
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''<br />
Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br />
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According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''<br />
next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br />
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Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br />
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The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. <br />
In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br />
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It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br />
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====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br />
It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br />
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===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br />
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''<br />
As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br />
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Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br />
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====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''<br />
It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br />
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Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
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To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br />
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====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br />
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===References===<br />
Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br />
<br />
Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br />
<br />
Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br />
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Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br />
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Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br />
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Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br />
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Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called "zero translation", is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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(2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
(1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
(3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br />
<br />
==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br />
'''<br />
Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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'''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
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This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
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====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
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However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and is presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauties Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformations Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purposes Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblances Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
The "Three-Beauties Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound." Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong suggested: "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
"Three-Resemblance" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Three-Resemblances Theory" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences in languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Xu employed the math equation to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblances" as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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"Three-Transformations Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauties Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformations Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br />
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Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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"Three-Purposes Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauties Theory", "Three-Resemblances Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauties Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauties Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauties Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformations Theory", "Three-Purposes Theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he points out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformations Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauties theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformations Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purposes Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.” <br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br />
<br />
====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br />
<br />
===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br />
<br />
====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br />
<br />
====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology, (1):22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br />
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Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly, (2):191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br />
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李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br />
<br />
Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br />
<br />
Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br />
Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
<br />
摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br />
中西文化史比较<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)<br />
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br />
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==Difference==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
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In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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